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LATIN GRAMMAR 



F0 R 

THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 
By I. N/MADYIG, 

PROFESSOR OF LATIN LITERATURE, COPENHAGEN. 



TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL GERMAN, WITH THE SANC- 
TION AND COOPERATION OF THE AUTHOR, 

BY THE 

REV. GEORGE WOODS, M.A., 

OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, OXFORD ; RECTOR OF SULLY, GLAMORGANSHIRE. 



The First American from the Fifth English Edition, carefully revised and compared 

with the German Editions of 1857 and 1867, with retranslations of 

portions of the work, 

By THOMAS A. THACHER, 

PROFESSOR OF J*ArTIH"~ TlKOfALE COLLEGE. 




-i4 



BOSTON: 
GINN BROTHERS AND COMPANY, 

13, Beacon Street. 
1870. 



Jh 



I«t0 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by 

GINN BROTHERS AND COMPANY, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 



CAMBRIDGE ! 
PRESS OF JOHN WILSON AND SON. 



> 



PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. 



The translation of Madvig's " Latin Grammar," by the 
Rev. George Woods, has been before the public more than 
twenty years, and has passed through five editions in Eng- 
land. The work has been steadily advancing in public 
favor ; and the reputation of Madvig himself, as a learned 
and philosophical classical scholar, suffers no change, ex- 
cept as it is more and more confirmed and established by 
time. > 

This edition is issued to meet the increasing demand for 
the Grammar, which is springing up in all parts of this 
country. It is substantially the translation of the Rev. 
Mr. Woods ; but in the revision of the translation, great 
freedom has been used, especially in making such verbal 
changes as seemed to promote perspicuity and help the 
learner to an instant understanding of the author's mean- 
ing. A translator who is not perfectly familiar with both 
the languages with which he has to do, is in danger of 
occasionally transferring a word from his dictionary to his 
page, without first submitting it to the scrutiny of his own 
thoughts ; and where infelicities of expression arise from 
such a cause, they are more likely to catch the eye of a 
stranger than of the translator himself. 



IV PREFACE. 

Of the hundreds of changes which have here been made 
in the text of the English edition, some are accounted for by 
what has just been said ; a few by the fact that the phrase- 
ology of Tischer's German edition, published under the 
direction of Madvig himself, has been preferred to that of 
the original work ; and others still have been made because 
Madvig has used new forms of expression in the edition 
issued by himself, to take the place of Tischer's, in the year 
1867/ 

In one particular this edition has ventured to depart both 
from the author and the English translator, in that the 
name usually given to the subjunctive mood by English 
grammarians is here retained. The German grammarians 
usually agree with Madvig in calling this the conjunctive. 
This difference of usage appears among the old Latin gram- 
marians also, while there is nothing in the original signifi- 
cation of the words which seems to decide the choice between 
them. Isidorus, to be sure, calls the mood conjunctivus 
" quia ei conjungitur aliquid, ut locutio plena sit " (I., 8, 4). 
But Probus names the moods " pronunciativus, id est, indicar 
tivus, imperativus, optativus, adjunctivus, infinitivus" (I., 
VII., 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) ; and Asper Junior, under the name 
qualitates, calls them finita, imperativa, optativa, adjunctiva, 
injinitiva (VII., 1). 

Maximus Victorinus says, "Modi autem sunt decern: in- 
dicativus, promissivus, imperativus, optativus, conjunctivus, 
infinitivus, impersonate, gerundi, hortandi, modus. Addunt 
quidam percunctativum modum" (Ars Grammatica, 20). 

Donatus says, there are seven moods, " ut multi existimant : 
indicativus, qui et pronunciativus dicitur, imperativus, pro- 
missivus; sed hunc nos modum non accipimus; optativus, 



PREFACE. V 

conjunctivus, infinitivus, impersonalis " (II., XII. , 1) . Phocas 
names the " indicativus" " imperativus" " promissivus" 
and " infinitivus" 

The above references do not yet give us the name subjunc- 
tive , but they show that the classification of the forms of 
the verb was not a settled thing among the ancient Latin 
grammarians, and that they were far from agreement in 
respect to the names to be given to the moods. 

Charisius, however, whom critics agree in placing high as 
an authority among the ancient Latin grammarians, uses 
the name subjunctive. Cyminius, the editor of the editio 
princeps of his work, which was published in the year 1532, 
speaks of him as "Romance linguce accuratissimus observa- 
tor" and as " grammaticorum omnium facile princeps" 
(See Lindemann's Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum vete- 
rum, Tomus IV., Fasciculus L, Prcefationes. Lipsise, 1840.) 

In his Institutiones Grammaticce, Charisius treats very 
fully of the verb ; and his testimony is of especial value on 
such a point as the one under consideration, because he 
professes to give his son, for whose benefit he wrote and 
compiled his work, the teachings of the earlier grammarians, 
as well as his own. He gives the names of the moods, 
which he calls modi verborum sive qualitates, as follows: 
pronunciativus, seu jinitivus, imperativus, optativus, subjunc- 
tivus seu conjunctivus, injinitivus. This list, to be sure, 
leaves us to our choice between the two names in question ; 
but our author himself uses only the name subjunctive in 
the pages of his work which contain the conjugations of 
the verbs, as well as in countless other places. (See Linde- 
mann ut supra, pp. 97, 98, 99, 100, 135, 136, and else- 
where.) J 



VI PREFACE. 

It is not necessary to give further proof of the disagree- 
ment among the authorities, both ancient and modern, on 
this comparatively unimportant point ; nor, in view of this 
disagreement, to apologize further for using in this edition 
of Madvig's " Grammar " that name for the subjunctive 
mood which will be most familiar to the reader. / 

As this book will rarely be used by beginners, it is not 
thought important to indicate the differences between the 
German and the English methods of pronouncing Latin. 
How the Romans themselves pronounced their language 
is not known, nor can it ever be known. Scholars may 
not agree in opinion respecting the extent of this igno- 
rance ; but even if it were in itself very limited, pertain- 
ing, for instance, only to the sound of a single letter, it 
might with reason be made an objection to any attempt to 
imitate the original pronunciation of the language ; for the 
number of distinct sounds is so small in such a language 
as the Latin or our own, that every one of them runs like 
a thread through every page, and constitutes an important 
element of it. The difficulties which attend this subject, 
and are inherent in it, are such, that there is no nation in 
Europe the classical scholars of which agree in claiming 
that they can reproduce the pronunciation of the Roman 
forum, or in attempting to do so. On the other hand, the 
scholars of each nation pronounce Latin, in the main, 
according to the analogy of their own language. There is 
no method which can properly be called " continental." 

If now scholars who speak English are not to enjoy the 
same freedom as those who live on the Continent, whom 
shall they imitate ? They do not themselves know enough 



PREFACE. Vll 

about the pronunciation of the ancient Romans to save their 
attempts to imitate that from being a caricature in the ears 
of a Roman, if a Roman could be summoned to hear them. 
It can hardly be urged that they should imitate the Ger- 
mans, for they are confessedly in error in their practice, 
— and the same is true of the scholars of other nations. 
Or if only the continental pronunciation of the vowels is to 
be imitated, must it not still be a matter of doubt how the 
frequently recurring diphthongs, oz and «, are to be pro- 
nounced ? 

The English method of pronouncing Latin is unquestion- 
ably at a wider remove from the ancient and genuine than 
the German or the French or the Italian method is. But 
the explanation of that fact is to be found in this, that the 
pronunciation of the English language itself has taken a 
freer and wider range than that of any continental nation. 
But to give up a method of pronouncing Latin which is gen- 
erally received by two great nations, and is inwrought also 
into a large constituent part of their own language, — a 
method easily learned and easily retained, — and to adopt 
in its stead a method which is full either of obvious or of 
probable errors, and which comes into constant conflict 
with English words of Latin parts, is, to say the least, of . 
doubtful expediency. / 

The opinion of Madvig on the question of pronouncing 
Latin according to quantity, as the ancients did, is given in 
the note on page 467 of the " Grammar;" and the second 
observation on page 468 has a bearing on the same subject. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAP. PAGE 

Introduction . 1 

ETYMOLOGY. 

I. Pronunciation. 

I. The Letters 3 

II. The Measure of the Syllables and Accentuation (Prosody) 11 

II. The Inflection of Words. 

I. The Classes of Words. Inflection, Stem, and Ending . . 18 

II. Of Gender and Inflection by Cases in general 20 

III. First Declension 25 

IV. Second Declension 28 

V. Third Declension 32 

VI. Peculiarities of the several Cases and of the Greek forms 

in the third Declension 46 

VII. Fourth Declension 51 

Vni. Fifth Declension 53 

IX. Of some peculiarities in the use of the Numbers of Sub- 
stantives, and of some Irregularities in their Inflection . 54 

X. The Inflection of Adjectives 63 

XL The Numerals 73 

XII. The Pronouns 80 

XIII. The Inflection of Verbs in general 89 

XIV. The Verb sum, and examples of the four Conjugations . 96 
XV. Verbs with a Passive Form and Active Signification 

(Deponent Verbs) 105 

XVI. Some peculiarities in the Conjugation of Verbs .... 108 
XVII. Irregular Perfects and Supines in general, and especially 

those of the first Conjugation Ill 



X CONTENTS, 

CHAP. PAGE 

XVHL Irregular Perfects and Supines of the second Conjugation 114 

XIX. Perfects and Supines of the third Conjugation .... 117 

XX. Irregular Perfects and Supines of the fourth Conjugation . 129 
XXI. Irregular Supines (Participles) of Deponent Yerbs, and 

some other Irregularities of these Verbs 130 

XXn. Irregular Verbs 133 

XXni. Defective Verbs 139 

XXIV. Impersonal Verbs 142 

XXV. The Adverbs and Prepositions .145 

HI. Rules for the Formation of Words. 

I. Formation of Words in general. Derivation of Substan- 
tives 150 

II. Derivation of Adjectives 160 

III. Derivation of Verbs 160 

IV. Derivation of Adverbs 166 

V. The Formation of new Words by Composition .... 173 



SYNTAX. 

Rules for the Construction of Words 179 

Part First. 

Of the Combinations of Words in a Proposition. 

I. The Parts of a Proposition. The Agreement of the Sub- 

ject and Predicate, the Substantive and Adjective . . . 180 

II. The Relations of Substantives in a Proposition, and the 

Cases ; the Nominative and Accusative 191 

III. The Dative 209 

IV. The Ablative 221 

V. The Genitive 242 

VI. The Vocative 263 

VII. The Use of Adjectives (Adverbs), and particularly of their 

Degrees of Comparison 264 

VIII. Peculiarities in the Construction of the Demonstrative and 

Relative Pronouns 276 



CONTENTS. Xi 

Part Second. 

On the Mode of distinguishing the Character of the Assertion, and the 
Time of the Fact asserted. 

CHAP. PAGE 

I. The Kinds of Propositions, and the Moods in general . . 285 

II. The Indicative and its Tenses . 288 

HI. The Subjunctive 300 

HE. (Appendix.) Object-clauses in the Subjunctive, and the 

Particles used with them 325 

IV. The Tenses of the Subjunctive 336 

Y. The Imperative 343 

VI. The Infinitive and its Tenses 345 

VII. The Supine, Gerund, and Gerundive 368 

VIII. The Participles 378 

IX. Combination of Coordinate and Subordinate Propositions, 
and the use of Conjunctions for this purpose. Inter- 
rogative and Negative Particles 388 

Part Third. 

Order and Position of Words and Propositions. 

L Order of Words in a Proposition 425 

II. Arrangement of Propositions 435 

First Appendix to the Syntax. 

Some Special Irregularities in the Construction of Words . 440 

Second Appendix to the Syntax. 

Signification and Use of the Pronouns 448 

The most important Eules of Latin Metre (Versification) . 466 

Supplements to the Grammar. 

I. The Roman way of expressing the Date 479 

II. Computation of Roman Money and Fractions 480 

III. Abbreviations 483 



ISTDEX 485 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§ 1. Latin Grammar teaches the Form of Latin Words, 
and their Combination in sentences. It is divided into 
Etymology and Syntax. Latin Metre, or the rules for the 
structure of Latin Verse, will be treated as supplementary 
to the Grammar. 

§ 2. The Latin language was formerly spoken by the Romans, 
first in a part of Central Italy, and subsequently in the whole of 
Italy, and in other countries which the Romans had subjugated ; 
at present it is known only from books and other written monu- 
ments of this nation. 

The oldest Latin writings which have come down to us were 
composed about 200 years before the birth of Christ. In the sixth 
century of the Christian era the language became entirely extinct, 
having been thoroughly corrupted and mixed with their own 
tongues by foreign nations which had migrated into the Roman terri- 
tories. By these means, various new languages (the Romance 
languages, as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese) were gradually 
formed. The numerous authors, who have written in Latin in 
later times, learned it as a dead language. 

During the long period above specified, the language underwent 
many changes, not only in the number of words, and in their signi- 
fications, forms, and combinations, but partially also in the pro- 
nunciation. In this Grammar it is for the most part represented 
as it was spoken and written during the most brilliant period of 
Roman literature ; and, where this is not the case, the usage of the 
most approved writers of that age is designated as the best. This 
period, extending from about the time of Cagsar and Cicero till 



2 LATIN GRAMMAR. §2 

shortly after the birth of Christ, is commonly termed the golden 
age of the language. The next, to about 120 years after the birth 
of Christ, is called the silver age. 

Obs. The Latin language is originally most nearly related to the 
Greek, and from this it also borrowed many terms at a later period, 
when the Romans became acquainted with the arts, the sciences, and the 
institutions of the Greeks. Both languages, moreover, belong to the 
same stem, from which the German and Northern tongues, with many 
others, have sprung ; as the ancient Sanscrit, now totally extinct, in 
India, and the Zend in Persia. All these languages are designated by 
the common name of Indo-Germanic, or Japhetic. 



ETYMOLOGY, 



§ 3. Etymology treats 1, — Of the Sounds, of which words 
consist, and their pronunciation ; 2. Of the Inflection of 
words ; and 3. Of their Derivation and Composition. 

I. — OF PRONUNCIATION. 
CHAPTER I. 

THE LETTERS. 

§ 4. The Latin language is written with twenty-three Letters, 
a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, (j), k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, (v), x, 
y, z (zeta). The consonants which have an affinity with the 
vowels i and u, — viz., j (i consonans) and v (u consonans), — 
were written by the Romans like those vowels (v for u as well as 
for v) . These vowels and consonants are now usually distinguished 
in writing. The letters y and z do not belong to the original Roman 
characters, and are employed only in Greek words, which were 
adopted by the Latins at a later period. 

Obs. 1. The Romans made no distinction between large and small 
letters. According to the present usage, large initial letters are usually 
employed only at the commencement of a sentence, and in proper names, 
with the adjectives and adverbs derived from them. 

Obs. 2. The Latin characters, as well as the Greek, were borrowed 
from the Hebrew and Phoenician. 

§ 5 a. The Vowels (litterae vocales) were pronounced some- 
times short (with a sharp utterance, broken off by a movement of 
the organs of speech), sometimes long (the voice dwelling on the 
lengthened sound) ; but this difference of pronunciation is not dis- 
criminated in writing. 

Obs. 1. In elementary books (as, for example, in this Grammar) the 
long vowels are sometimes distinguished by "", and the short by ~, 
placed over them. The sign - denotes that the vowel over which it is 
placed was pronounced sometimes long and sometimes short. In the 
earliest period a long vowel was sometimes distinguished by reduplica- 



4 LATIN GRAMMAR. §5 

tion. The long i was also expressed by ei (heic for hie, as it was 
always pronounced ; eidus, arteis). 

Obs. 2. I is a consonant (j) at the beginning of Latin words before 
every other vowel, except in the participle iens. So also in the middle 
of words between two vowels (major, Pompejus, but Gai), except in 
tenuia, tenuior, assiduior (in the Greek names Achaja, Grajus, 
Maja, Ajax, Troja, but Troius). Before a vowel at the beginning of 
Greek words, it is a vowel (i-ambus) .* 

Obs. 3. U is a consonant (v) at the beginning of words before a 
vowel (vado) and in the middle of words between two vowels (avidus), 
also after ng, 1, and r, when u does not belong to the inflectional 
ending (angvis, solvo, arvum, but colui), and in some words after 
the initial s (svadeo, svavis, svesco, Svetonius). In compound 
words it follows the same rule as in the simple ; e.g. e-ruo. After v it 
was the old usage to pronounce and write o in the place of u ; e.g. 
servos for servus, divom for divum : and in some words o for e ; e.g. 
voster, vortex, for vester, vertex. 1 

Obs. 4. For the sake of the verse, the poets sometimes make i and u 
consonants after a consonant ; e.g. abjes, consiljum, genva, tenvia, 
for abies, consilium, genua, tenuia. Conversely, they resolve v into 
u, as su-emus instead of svemus, and frequently after 1 (silu-a, dis- 
solu-o, dissolu-endus. This is called diaeresis (resolution). 2 

Obs. 5. In some cases the pronunciation wavered between two cog- 
nate vowels, or varied at different periods, which also led to a variation 
in the orthography: e.g. in classes and classis (accus. plur.), heri 
and here, yesterday; faciendus and faciundus. In some few words 
and forms, where i was both spoken and written at a later period, the 
sound of ii was formerly predominant (even down to the time of Cicero 
and Caesar) ; e.g. lubet for libet, opturnus for optimus. 

b. Of the compound vowel sounds (Diphthongs), those commonly 
met with are ae, oe, and au ; eu occurs only in a few words (heus, 
hen, eheu, ceu, seu, neu, neuter, neutiqvam) ; ei only in the 
interjection hei ; ui in huic and cui, and in the interjection hui. 

Obs. 1. Ae originated in ai, as it was also written in the earliest 
times, oe in oi. In pronunciation, oe had some resemblance to u 
(poena, punire). These Diphthongs correspond to the Greek ai and oi 
(Hecataeus, Philetaerus, Oeta). 

1 The variation of the sound of these consonants as we utter them does not affect the rule. 
Thus j is a consonant in Troja, Achaja, abjes, consiljum, &c, although scholars who 
speak English usually give it the ordinary English sound in Troja* and the ordinary German 
sound (like y) in the other words. (T.) 

2 The word diaeresis is Greek, as well as the names synaloephe, synaeresis, syni- 
zesis, ecthlipsis, and syncope, which occur in the ensuing paragraphs. 



§ 6 OF PRONUNCIATION. 5 

Obs. 2. In words adopted by the Latins from the Greek, et is ex- 
pressed before consonants by I, before vowels by I or e (Heraclitus, 
Euclides, Aristogiton, Eclipsis; Dareus and Darius, Alexandria 
and Alexandria, Aristotelius and Aristoteleus) . 

Obs. 3. In some words the pronunciation and orthography waver 
between ae and e (saeculum, saepire, taeter, are better than secu- 
lum, &c, heres better than haeres) ; in others between oe and e 
(fecundus, femina, fenus, fetus) ; in others again between ae and oe 
(caelum, caeruleus, maereo) ; in obscoenus, between all three forms. 
Au and 6 were also interchanged in some words (plaudo, plodo, 
Claudius, Clodius) . A preference should be given to such forms as 
are most sanctioned by ancient inscriptions. 

c . The following remarks apply to the permutation of the vowels 
as resulting from the inflection, derivation, and composition of 
words. 

If the radical vowel be lengthened in the inflection, a is gener- 
ally changed into e (ago-egi). If the radical vowel be weakened 
by a prefix, ae is often changed into l (laedo, illldo), a into l, if 
the syllable be open (i.e. ending in a vowel), and into e, if it be 
close (i.e. ending in a consonant) ; e.g. facio, perf i-cio, perfec-tus : 
e in an open syllable is often changed into l (teneo, COlltineo, but 
conten-tus ; nomen, nomi-nis ; semen, but seminarium ; before r 
it remains unchanged, e.g. affero, congero, from fero, gero) ; con- 
versely, l is changed into e in a close syllable, e.g. judex from the 
theme judic: in an open syllable often becomes ti in a close 
one ; e.g. in adolesco, adultus ; colo, cultus ; ebur, eboris ; cor- 
pus, corporis: ti often takes the place of other vowels before 1 
(pello, pepuli; scalpo, exsculpo; familia, famulus). 

§ 6. When two consecutive vowels are to be separated and pro- 
nounced distinctly, a kind of hesitation (hiatus, gap) is produced 
in the utterance, especially if one vowel concludes a word and the 
other commences one ; e.g. contra audentior. Hence in reading 
verse, the former vowel is regularly omitted without regard to the 
quantity, which is termed elisio (striking out), or synaloephe 
(blending) ; e.g. saper' aude for sapere aude, qvoqv' et for qvoqve 
et, Dardanid' e muris for Dardanidae e muris, ultr* Asiam for 
ultro Asiam. The same takes place if the second word begins 
with h, or the first ends in m ; e.g. toller' humo for tollere humo, 
mult' ille for multum ille. See § 8 and 9. (For the exceptions 



6 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 8 

compare § 502 h.) Without doubt something like this occurred 
in ordinary pronunciation. 

Obs. 1. It often happens also, that in the formation and inflection of 
words, what were originally two vowels are contracted into a long 
vowel or diphthong, especially when a or o is followed by another 
vowel, or the same vowel is repeated ; e.g. cogo from coago, tibicen 
from tibiicen, mensae from mensai. Sometimes only one vowel 
was pronounced, though two were written (deest, deerunt) . In some 
cases, contrary to the prose usage, the poets allow themselves to com- 
bine two vowels into one sound (by synaeresis or synizesis, sinking 
together) , as dein, deinde, proinde, quoad, particularly e with i, a, and o, 
in words the nominative of which ends in eus, ea, or eum; e.g. alvei, 
cerea, aureo, as well as anteis, anteit, from the verb anteeo. The 
old Comic writers (Plautus and Terence) go much further in this 
(quia, &c). 

Obs. 2. In the interrogative enclitic ne, the vowel was sometimes left 
out in ordinary pronunciation, even before a consonant (e.g. nostin', 
qvaeso) ; in this case, the final s is also omitted in the second person 
sing. pres. of some verbs, and in satis (viden' for videsne, audin' for 
audisne, satin' for satisne). 

§ 7. Of the Consonants, some are mutes ; b, c (k, q), d, f, g, p, t, 
which have an abrupt sound : some, liquids ; 1, m, n, r, which (par- 
ticularly 1 and r) may be easily attached to a preceding consonant. 
To these may also be added the sibilant s. x is a double letter for 
cs, z (Greek) for sd. 1 

Of the mute consonants, C (k, q) and g are palatals, p and b 
labials, t and d dentals. Some have a harder and more abrupt 
pronunciation (c, p, t, tenues), some a softer and with somewhat 
of an aspiration (b, g, d, which are called mediae, as compared 
with ch, ph, th, which have the strongest aspiration), f approaches 
nearly to the labials, but has at the same time somewhat of a dental 
sound. 

§ 8. With reference to the pronunciation of the particular con- 
sonants, it may be observed, that c was always pronounced by the 
ancients like k, or with only a slight modification of that sound (in 
doces as in doctus, in accipis as in capis). At a very late period, 
when the language was on the verge of extinction, that pronun- 
ciation came into vogue which is now usual in Germany ; viz., of 

1 Cf. Corseen, " uber Aussprache, Vocalismus und Betonung d. Latein. Sprache," I. 122, 
123. (T.) 



§8 



OP PRONUNCIATION. 



giving c before e, i, y, ae, oe, en, the sound of ts (compare ti). A 
peculiar variety of the sound c was qv (qn), which is reckoned as 
one consonant, as inqvilinus from incolo. The subordinate sound 
was occasionally dropped in some words (qvotidie and cotidie, as it 
was often pronounced and written coqvus and cocus). Before a 
consonant, qv is either changed simply into c, as in relictus, coxi 
(coc-si), from relinqvo, coqvo, or in some cases into cu, as in 
secutus from seqvor. If in the inflection of a word n would have 
to stand after qv, the Latins pronounced and wrote either en, or 
qvo (according to § 5, a, Obs. 3), as secuntur or seqvontnr ;• at a 
later period, however, they wrote qvum, and, according to the pres- 
ent usage, seqvuntur, relinqvnntnr. (Conditio, from qvatio.) 

K was only used in a few words as an initial letter before a, 
especially in abbreviations: K. = Kaeso (a prasnonien), K. or Kal.= 
Kalendae. 

Ti is now pronounced before vowels like tsi, 1 except after s and t 
(jnstior, mixtio, Attins), in the lengthened passive infinitive (pa- 
tier), and in Greek words (Isocratius = Isocrateus, Boeotia) ; but 
this pronunciation dates from a very recent period. Thus, in the 
later pronunciation, ti before a vowel, and ci, came to have the 
same sound, and were occasionally interchanged in writing ; e.g. in 
the derivative ending cins (patricius, snppositicins). 

M as a final consonant, when followed by a vowel, had an obscure 
and scarcely audible sound, on which account it is dropped in read- 
ing verse (by ecthlipsis, squeezing out), together with the vowel 
which precedes it, precisely as if that terminated the word (ventnr' 
excidio for venturum excidio, need' etiam for neednm etiam). 
See § 6. 

M and n are related in such a way (as nasal sounds) that m is 
heard before m, b, and p, but n before the remaining consonants 
(comburo; but concipio, condo; tiim, but tunc). Before the 
enclitic particles ne and que, in is retained (deorumne, hominnm- 
qve). Before C (q) and g, n had the same sound as in the English 
word long. 

It now stands in many Latin words where there was formerly an 
s, since the Romans, with the exception of a few words (such as 
qvaeso, vasis, &c, from vas, asinns, miser), have changed s be- 



1 By German scholars ; but not by those of the English race, nor even by the Italian de- 
scendants of the Romans. (T.) 



8 LATIN GRAMMAR. §10 

tween two vowels into r (Papirius, Veturius, for Papisius, Vetu- 
sius ; arborem for arbosem ; gero for geso, whence gessi ; oris for 
osis, from os). S, however, always remains unchanged, when an- 
other consonant has been dropped before it (divisi for dividsi, from 
divido), or when it begins the last part of a compound word (de- 
silio), 

§ 9. H is not a consonant, but the sign of a guttural aspiration 
of the vowel, so that two vowels with an h between them are con- 
sidered as immediately following each other, and the elision of a 
final vowel is not prevented by h (§6). Hence some words with 
h between two vowels are occasionally contracted (nihil and nil, 
prehendo and prendo, vehemens and vemens). At the beginning 
of some words, h was sometimes prefixed, and at other times omit- 
ted (arundo, harundo ; ave, have ; hedera, edera ; herus, erus). 

In the earliest times the consonants were scarcely ever aspirated 
(pronounced with h) : afterwards this was done in Greek words 
(thesaurus, elephantus, delphinus), and in those of barbarous origin 
(rheda), but only in very few genuine Latin words ; as brachium, 
pulcher, triumphus (sepulchrum is incorrect), and in some proper 
names, as Cethegus, Gracchus. 

§ 10. A regard for Euphony and convenience of pronunciation 
has often much influence on the consonants in words, and leads to 
alterations in them. 

At the end of words (as a final consonant), no consonant is 
doubled (we have therefore mel, fel, although the gen. is mellis, 
fellis) : no consonant is doubled before another in the middle of a 
word, except a mute before a liquid (effluo ; but falsum from fallo, 
cursum from curro). Yet among the words compounded with the 
prepositions trans and ex (ecs), we sometimes find transscribo, and 
frequently exspecto, exstinguo (ecsspecto), for expecto, extinguo. 
A consonant has sometimes been dropped from the end of a word 
which has no inflectional ending (sermo, sermonis ; cor, cordis ; 
lac, lactis). 

Changes take place more especially when consonants of a differ- 
ent character are brought together, either by the composition of 
words, or by the addition of an inflectional ending or of a suffix used 
in the formation of derivative words. 

Before a liquid, a tenuis (c, p, t) is often changed into the cor- 
responding media (b, g, d) (negligens from nee) ; and a media 
before a tenuis or s into the corresponding tenuis, in the pronuncia- 



§12 OF PRONUNCIATION. 9 

tion, though not always in writing. G before t and s always be- 
comes c, as actus from ago, unxi (unc-si) from ungo ; and b before 
t and s generally becomes p, scriptus, scripsi ; yet we find both 
obtineo and optineo, absens, obsideo, urbs. 

Sometimes (by assimilation) a consonant was completely changed 
into that which succeeded it, — d, t, and b into S in cessi, fossum, 
passus, fassus, jussi, from cedo, fodio, patior, fateor, jubeo, d 
into c in qvicqvam, qvicqvid, n and r into 1 in corolla, agellus, 
from corona, ager, — especially the final consonant of the preposi- 
tions (attingo from ad and tango), in which case, however, the 
change was often not distinguished in writing (compare § 173 and 
204, Ohs. 1). Sometimes one consonant disappeared entirely before 
another, particularly d and t before s : e.g. divisi for divid-si, from 
divido ; mons for monts, nox for nocts (genitive noct-is), flexi 
for flectsi. 

§ 11. In order to facilitate the pronunciation, a vowel is some- 
times inserted between two consonants (e in ager, gen. agri ; u in 
vinculum, which was also pronounced vinclum). On the other 
hand, a vowel was sometimes left out in familiar discourse, and here 
and there in writing (by syncope, abbreviation) ; e.g. dextra for dex- 
tera, consumpse (instead of consumpssse, § 10) for consumpsisse. 
Abbreviations of this kind are frequent in the Comic writers. 

Obs. The oldest pronunciation of all nations shows itself inclined to 
certain combinations of sound, and averse to others : and particular sounds 
are somewhat modified by different nations of kindred origin. Pronuncia- 
tion is also subject to very frequent changes, so long as the language 
remains unwritten. These are the causes of certain differences of pro- 
nunciation between the Greek and Latin languages ; e.g. in the sounds 
v and f, in final m and n, in the aspirate (which is the first sound of seve- 
ral words in Greek which in Latin begin with s : e.g. vm'o, super ; vno, 
sub; vXrj, silva; vg 9 sus). Hence also arise other differences in several 
particular words which were originally identical : e.g. an initial consonant 
has been dropped in Latin in uro (jtvQ, comburo) and fallo (cr^^A/.oo), 
and in Greek in tquco (strido) . Such variations in the pronunciation and 
form of words show themselves also in the inflection, which has some- 
times preserved traces of an older form of the word ; e.g. fluxi, struxi, 
from fluo, struo. 

§ 12. The orthography of the Eomans was somewhat un- 
settled, even at one and the same given period, since some writers 
invariably followed the pronunciation, although even this, in some 



10 LATIN GRAMMAR. §13 

words and forms, was not quite definite and distinct (as in the ace. 
urbes or urbis) ; while others, on the contrary, in compound or 
derivative words, looked more to their origin (e.g. tamqvam, num- 
qvam, although they were pronounced as tanqvam or nunqvam), 
or adhered to an orthography which had been once adopted, though 
it no longer agreed with the pronunciation then in vogue. Far 
greater was the diversity in the orthography of different periods, 
inasmuch as the pronunciation also underwent many changes. 
On the whole, it is now best and safest to follow the orthography 
of the later Roman grammarians, which corresponds to the pronun- 
ciation of their times, or to a gradually established usage. In 
doubtful cases, we shall often find what is right by considering the 
origin of the words, and what may from thence be probably in- 
ferred as to their pronunciation (e.g. condicio from condicere)- 
But in editions of the works of the older writers, e.g. Cicero and 
Virgil, the antiquated orthography is retained in many words ; e.g. 
divom, volt (§ 5, a, Obs. 3). 

§ 13. In the manuscripts of the ancients, the words at the end of 
the lines were not divided accurately according to the syllables (syl- 
labae). A consonant between two vowels belongs to the last vowel, 
with which it is also combined in the pronunciation ; of two or more 
consonants, the last — or, if they can begin a Latin word, the last two 
— go with the following vowel, the other or others with the preceding 
(pa-tris, fa-scia, ef-fluo, perfec-tus, emp-tus). The double letter 
X, which belongs partly to the preceding, partly to the following 
vowel, is best connected with the preceding. In words compounded 
with prepositions, the final consonant of the preposition is not sepa- 
rated from it (ab-eo, ad-eo, praeter-eo, so prod-eo, red-eo). 

Obs. 1. Latin words cannot begin with any other combinations of con- 
sonants than with a mute followed by 1 or r or s, with a tenuis (sc, sp, st), 
or s with a tenuis and r or 1 (splendor, scribo, spretus, stratus). Yet 
we find gnarus and (rarely) gnavus, gnatus. 

Obs. 2. In many books, however, according to a very prevalent tradi- 
tional usage, the words are so divided, that all those consonants likewise, 
which can begin a word in Greek, and all mutes with liquids (even if they 
cannot begin a Greek word, e.g. gm), and, finally, similar combinations 
of two mutes (e.g. gd and ct), are attached to the syllable following 
(i-gnis, o-mnis, ra-ptus, Ca-dmus, i-pse, scri-psi, Le-sbos, a-gmen, 
Da-phne, rhy-thmus, smara-gdus). 



§16 OF SYLLABLES AND ACCENTUATION. 11 

CHAPTER H. 

THE MEASURE OF THE SYLLABLES AND ACCENTUATION (PROSODY). 1 

§ 14. The pronunciation of the syllables varies according to the 
duration of the sound (the quantity of the syllables) and the ac- 
centuation. In the pronunciation of the Romans themselves, the 
distinction of quantity, which also controls the place of the accent 
in Latin, was the most marked and perceptible ; and euphony de- 
pends on this, both in prose and verse. But in the modern pronun- 
ciation of Latin (as in our own and in modern languages generally), 
the difference of accent only is commonly heard with distinctness, 
— and indeed with more stress than was the case with the ancients ; 
while the difference of quantity is only observable in particular 
cases, and not in all the successive syllables which the speaker 
utters. 

§ 15. Some syllables are long, some short; to the first is given 
twice the duration (mora) of the last ; a very few only are doubt- 
ful (ancipites), so that they may be pronounced either way. A 
syllable is long either by nature, when its vowel has of itself the 
long, continued pronunciation ; e.g. sol, trado (§ 5, a), or by the posi- 
tion of its vowel, when the vowel-sound, which is in itself short, 
must be sustained for a longer time, on account of two or more con- 
sonants following it, as in the first syllable in ossis. 

Obs. In the old pronunciation, it was distinctly perceived by the ear 
whether a vowel before two or more consonants was long in itself, with- 
out any reference to position (as in mons, gentis; pax, gen. pacis; est, 
for edit) , or whether the vowel itself was short, and the syllable conse- 
quently only long by position (as in fax, gen. facis ; est from sum) ; but 
we are often unacquainted with this distinction, since we generally ascertain 
the quantity of syllables only from the usage of the poets, where, if a 
vowel is long by position, its nature is of no importance. 

§ 16, a. All diphthongs are long. 

Obs. The diphthong ae in prae is shortened before a vowel in com- 
pound words; e.g. praeacutus: but in all other (Greek) words, it is 
always long, even before a vowel ; e.g. Aeolides, Aeetes. 



1 The Greek word TrpocLidta (properly an accompanying song, a tone accompanying 
the pronunciation) signifies at first the accentuation ; but at a later period it was used also to 
denote the quantity (length or shortness) of the syllables, and the rules relating to it. 



12 LATIN GRAMMAR. §18 

b. Every vowel before another vowel in the same word (even if 
an h be interposed, § 9) is pronounced short (deus, contraho, ad- 
veho). 

From this rule are excepted, — 

1. e before i after a vowel in the genitive and dative of the fifth de- 
clension (diei, but fidei). 

2. a in the resolved genitive in ai in the first declension (mensai). 

3. i in the genitives in ius (alius, &c, for alterius. See § 37, 
Obs. 2). 

4. a and e before i in the vocative of proper names in jus in the sec- 
ond declension (Gai, Fompei) . 

5. The first vowel in the interjections eheu and one (but also one), in 
the adjective dius, sometimes in the proper name Diana (more frequently 
Diana), and in all the forms from fio, except flerem (fieres, &c.) and 
fieri. 

6. Greek words in which the vowel retains the quantity which it has in 
Greek ; aer, eos, herous, Menelaus. In such words, therefore, e and i 
are long before another vowel, when r\ or u occur in the Greek (Briseis, 
Medea, Aeneas, Alexandria or Alexandria, Epicureus, Spondeus ; 
chorea alone is sometimes chorea) ; on the other hand, they are short 
when the Greek has £ or l (idea, philosophia). But we find acaaemia 
(dxadr{[Aia). 

Obs. At the end of a word, a long vowel or ae may sometimes be 
shortened in verse before a vowel following, instead of being elided. 
Compare § 502, b. 

§ 17. Vowels formed by contraction and syncope in the middle of 
words are long (cogo from coago, malo from magevolo, tibicen 
from tibncen, junior from juvenior). 

§ 18. The quantity of the radical syllables of words which are not 
monosyllables cannot be determined by rules ; but the radical sylla- 
bles and their vowels retain the same quantity in all inflections of 
the word, and in all its derivatives and compounds, even if the vowel 
be changed into another cognate vowel : e.g. mater, maternus ; 
pater, paternus ; scribo, scribere, scriba, conscribere ; amo, 
amor, amicus, amicitia, inimicitiae ; cado, incido ; caedo, in- 
cido. In the same way, the vowel of a particular form of inflec- 
tion retains the same quantity in the further modifications of this 
form, and in the words derived from it : e.g. docebam, docebamus, 
docebamini ; amatus, amaturus ; monitum, admonltio. 

From this rule are excepted, — 

1. Inflections, a. Perfects in i, formed without reduplication, which 



§19 OF SYLLABLES AND ACCENTUATION. 13 

lengthen the first syllable, unless one vowel stands before another (see 
§ 103, b) ; b. Perfects and supines (with the forms derived from them), 
in which the last radical consonant of the verb has been dropped before 
si, sum, turn (divido, divisi, divisum ; video, visum ; moveo, motum ; 
cado, casum) ; c. Posui, positum, from pono ; d. Some monosyllable 
nominatives of words of the third declension, in which the vowel is 
long, though the radical syllable in the other cases is short (see § 21, 
2,&). 

2. Derivatives, a. humanus (homo) ; secius (secus) ; rex, regis, 
regula (rego) ; lex, legis (lego) ; tegula (tego) ; suspicio (suspicor) ; 
vox, vocis (voco) ; sedes (sedeo) ; persona (sono) : b. ambitus, 
ambitio (ambitum from ambire) ; condicio (condico) ; dicax, and 
the words in dicus (maledicus, &c.) from dico; dux, ducis (duco) ; 
fides, perfidus (fido, fidus, infidus) ; nota, notare (notus) ; paciscor 
(pax, pacis) ; sopor (sopire) ; labo (labor, labi) ; liicerna (luceo) ; 
molestus (moles). From stare come both staturus and statio, sta- 
bilis. 

3. Compounds, dejero, pejero (juro); cognitus, agnitus (notus); 
proniibus, inniibus (nubo). For connubium, we have also connu- 
bium (or connubjum, according to § 5, a, Obs. 4). 

Obs. If a word with a particular grammatical termination becomes the 
first part of a compound, or has an additional syllable appended to it, 
the quantity of the termination remains unchanged : e.g. qvapropter, 
qvatenus (qva) ; mecum, memet (me) ; qvilibet (qvi) ; alioqvi 
(alio) ; introduce (intro) ; agricultura (agri). (Yet we find siqvidem 
from si, qvandoqvidem from qvand5.) 

§ 19. The quantity of those syllables by which derivative words 
are formed, and of the penults of inflectional endings, is noticed in 
its proper place among the rules for the formation and inflection of 
words. We now give the rules by which the quantity of the final 
syllable may be determined, both in monosyllables and words of more 
than one syllable. 

In the termination of words of more than one syllable, which end 
in a vowel, — 

1. a is short in nouns (mensa, nom. and voc., ligna, animalia, 
Palladia), except in the abl. sing, of the first declension (mensa), 
and in the voc. of nouns in as (Aenea ; Palla, from Pallas, Pal- 
lantis) ; but long in verbs in the imperative (ama) ; and in inde- 
clinable words (intra, extra, erga, antea, quadraginta), except 
ita, quia, eja, and puta, signifying for example, 

2. e is short (patre, curre, nempe, prope, facile, legere, hosce, 
reapss, STioptS) except in the ablative of the fifth declension (spe- 



14 LATIN GRAMMAB. §20 

cie), in the imperative of the second conjugation (mone), in the 
adverbs in e formed from adjectives in us (docte), together with 
fere, ferme, ohe, hodie, and in Greek words in r\ (crambe, Tempe). 
But the adverbs bene, male, inferne, and superne, have the e 
short. 

Obs. The poets use also some dissyllable imperatives of the second 
conjugation, the first syllable of which is short, with a short final syllable ; 
e.g. cave, habe, vale, vide, tace. The ablative of fames (third de- 
clension) has the e long, fame. 

3. i is long (pueri, gen. and nom., patri, fructui, vidi, videri) ; 
short only in the voc. of Greek words in ig (Pari), and in nisi, 
qvasi (and cm, when considered as a dissyllable) ; either long or 
short in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi. From ubi are formed necubi, 
sicubi, ubivis, ubinam, ubiqve, ubicunqve.) 

4. o is most frequently long in the nominative case of nouns, and 
in the first person of verbs, but occasionally short (in the later poets 
especially) ; in Greek words in go, it is always long (Io, Echo) ; 
long in case-endings of the second declension ; in ambo, and in 
adverbs (e.g. porro, quo, falso, qvando, idcirco, vulgo, omnino, 
ergo), with the exception of modo (with its compounds, tantum- 
modo, dummodo, qvomodo), cito, immo ; it is short in duo, octo, 
ego, cedo (tell me), endo (for in). 

Obs. The poets of the silver age also use the adverbs ergo (there- 
fore), qvando, porro, postremo, sero, and the ablative of the gerund 
(vigilando) with a short o (always qvando qvidem). 

5. u is always long (cornu, diu) ; y, occurring in a very few Greek 
words, is short (moly). 

§ 20. All final syllables of words of more than one syllable, which 
end in any (single) consonant except s, are short (donee, illud, 
consul, amem, carmen, forsitan, amer, amaretur, ager, pater, 
caput, amat), except alec, lien, compounds of par (dispar), cases 
(except the nom. masc.) and adverbs from illic and istic (illoc, 
iliac), and except Greek words with a Greek form, which retain 
their original quantity (aer, accus. aera, aether; crater, accus. 
crateras; Siren, Aenean, Calliopen, Epigrammaton). But the 
ending coq is shortened into or (Hector, rhetor, from "Extcoq, 

Of the final syllables in s, — 

1. as is long (mensas, aetas, amas), except in anas (anatis), 



§ 21 OP SYLLABLES AND ACCENTUATION. 15 

in Greek nominatives in as, gen. adis (Ilias), and in the Greek 
accus. plur. of the third declension (heroas). 

2. es is long (clades, aedes, nom. sing, reges, series, ames, 
dices, qvoties), except, — a. The nominatives sing, of the third 
declension, which have in the gen. etis, itis, idis (seges, miles, 
obses) ; the following, however, with etis in the gen., have es long : 
abies, aries, paries, b. Compounds of es (from sum), ades, abes, 
potes. c. The preposition penes, d. Greek nominatives plur. of 
the third declension in sg (crateres, Arcades), e. Greek neuters 
in eg (Cynosarges, Hippomanes). 

3. is is short (ignis, regis, facilis, dicis), excepting, a. in the 
dat. and abl. plur. (mensis, pueris, nobis, vobis), and in the accus. 
plur. of the third declension (omnis for omnes) ; b. in gratis (gra- 
tiis), foris ; c. in the second pers. sing. pres. of the fourth conjugation 
(audis), and in the verbs vis, sis (adsis, possis, &c), fis, veils, 
nolis, malls, and often in the second person of the future perfect 
and perfect subjunctive (amaveris) ; d. in the nominatives ftviris, 
Samnis, Salamis, Eleusis, Simois. 

4. os is long (honos, multos, illos), except in compos, impos, 
and in the Greek termination of cases in og (Delos, nom. Erinnyos, 
gen.). 

5. us is short (annus, tempus, vetus, fontibus, legimus, tenus, 
funditus) except, a. in the gen. sing, and nom. and ace. plur. of the 
fourth declension (senatus, but in the nom. sing, senatus) ; b. in 
the nominatives of the third declension, which have long u in the 
genitive (virtus, virtutis ; palus, paludis ; tellus, telluris) ; c. in 
the Greek gen. ovg in the third declension (Sapphus), and in some 
Greek proper names with ovg in the nom. (Panthus, Melampus), 
but (Oedipus, Oedipi). 

6. ys, in Greek words, is short ; e.g. Cotys. 

§ 21. 1. All words of one syllable, which end in a vowel, are 
long (a, e, ne, that not ; da) ; only those particles which are attached 
to the end of other words are short (ore, ve, and the interroga- 
tive ne). 

2. Of words of one syllable which end in a consonant, it is to be 
observed, — 

a. Those which are declined or conjugated follow the general 
rules for final syllables (das, fles, scis, dat, stat, net, qvis nom. 
Is, id, his, qvis dat. and abl., qvi, qvos, qvas, hoc, hac) ; es from 
sum is short, from edo long. 



16 LATIN GRAMMAR. §22 

b. The nominatives of substantives and adjectives are long (os, 
gen. oris ; mos, as, sol, ver, fur, plus), even if the radical vowel 
in the other cases is short (lar, sal, pes, mas, bos, vas, gen. vadis, 
par) ; but vir, cor, fel, lac, mel, os, gen. ossis, are short. The pro- 
noun hie is either long or short ; hoc is long. 

c. Words that do not vary are short (ab, ob, per, at, qvot, nee) ; 
but the following are long : en, non, qvin, sin, eras, cur, and the 
adverbs in c (Mc, hue, sic). 

d. The imperatives die, due, fac, and fer, retain the quantity of 
their verbs. 

§ 22. A syllable with a short vowel is long by position, when it 
ends either with two consonants or a double consonant (amabunt, 
fax) ; or when the syllable itself ends in a consonant, while the next, 
either in the same or another word, begins with a consonant 
(dantis, inferretqve, passus sum) ; or when the next syllable of the 
same word begins with two consonants which are not a mute and 
r or 1, or with j (resto, major) : j, when standing between two 
vowels, is, as it were, doubled in pronunciation. But it does not 
constitute position in the compounds of jugum (bijugus, qvadriju- 
gus). 

If the next syllable of the same word begins with a mute and 
1 or r, only weak position (positio debilis) results, i.e. the syllable 
may be used as either long or short ; e.g. patris, tenebrae, medio- 
cris, vepres, poples, Atlas, assecla, as in this verse of Ovid (Met. 
XIII. 607) : Et primo similis volticri, mox vera volucris ; 
and the following of Virgil (iEn. II. 663) : Natum ante ora pa- 
tris, patrem qui obtruncat ad aras. (We always have ob-repo, 
sub-rigo, &c, when the mute and the liquid belong severally to 
their part of the compound. If the vowel be long by nature, the 
same quantity, of course, holds, without any reference to the posi- 
tion, as in salubris, from salus, ambulacrum, delubrum.) 

Obs. 1. In certain words, however, every-day use, as well as the prac- 
tice of particular poets, has established a certain custom, so that in some 
the vowel is almost always lengthened, as in the inflected cases of niger and 
piger (nigri, pigri) ; in others never, as in arbitror. In prose, that sylla- 
ble which is only lengthened by positio debilis is always pronounced 
short (tenebrae). 

Obs. 2. In Greek words, weak position is also formed by a mute with 
morn (Cycnus, Tecmessa, Daphne). 

Obs. 3. If a word ends with a short vowel, and the following begins 



§ 23 OP SYLLABLES AND ACCENTUATION. 17 

with two consonants or a double consonant, no lengthening by position 
takes place (praemia scribae, ilice glandis, nemorosa Zacynthos). 

Obs. 4. The oldest poets (before Virgil and Horace) often allow s as 
a final consonant (on account of a certain weakness in the pronunciation) 
to form no position with the following initial consonant ; e.g. certissi- 
miis nuntius mortis, or certissimu , nuntiu' mortis. 

Obs. 5. Since the lengthening of syllables by position is quite distinct 
from the proper length of the vowels, the older Comic poets have often 
thought themselves justified in disregarding it. 

Obs. 6. The poets allow themselves, in certain denned cases, to supply 
the place of a long syllable in a verse with a short one ; but this is 
founded on the structure of the verse, not on the nature of the syllable. 
(See § 502. a.) 

§ 23. In every word, the accent falls on a particular syllable, and 
is either acute or circumflex, but is not distinguished in writing. 
(In books of instruction, the acute accent is designated by i, the 
circumflex by i). 

Monosyllables have the circumflex accent, if the vowel is long by 
nature ; otherwise, the acute accent. 

In words of more than one syllable, the last (ultima) is never 
accentuated. In dissyllables, therefore, the accent falls on the first. 
In words of three or more syllables, it falls on the penult, if this be 
long ; but if this be short, on the antepenult. The accent on the 
penult is a circumflex, if the vowel be long by nature (not the syl- 
lable only by position) and the last syllable short ; otherwise, an 
acute ; on the antepenult it is never a circumflex (Roma, Roma, 
homo, leotus; Romanus, Romanas, Metellus, moribus, carmi- 
nibus, homines). 

Obs. 1. In compounds of facio with other words than prepositions 
(palamfacio, calefacio), the accent always remains on facio (cale- 
facit). * 

Obs. 2. If a new word is formed by the addition of qve, the accent fol- 
lows the general rule (itaqve, uterqve) ; but if qve, ne, ve, are attached 
to a word as enclitics, the accent is thrown on the last syllable of the word 
(itaqve = et ita, Musaqve hi the abl., Musaqve in the nom.). 



18 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 24 

II. — OF THE INFLECTION OF WORDS. 
CHAPTER I. 

THE CLASSES OF WORDS. INFLECTION, STEM, AND ENDING. 

§ 24. Words (verba or voces) are divided according to their 
different uses in speech into certain Classes (partes orationis, 
classes of words = parts of speech). 

1. The word by which a thing (a conception) is expressed inde- 
pendently, is called a noun substantive, nomen substantivum, 
(from substantia, existence) : e.g. vir, the man ; domus, the house ; 
actio, the action. It either denotes a thing with reference to its 
kind and the general idea, which may comprise a number of indi- 
vidual objects (an appellative or common noun, nomen appella- 
tivum), e.g. corpus, ovis, flos ; or a single defined object without 
reference to its kind or the general idea (a proper name, nomen 
proprium), e.g. Lucius, Sempronius, Roma. 

2. The word by which a thing is named and defined according 
to some quality or attribute appertaining to it, is called a noun 
adjective, nomen adjectivum ; e.g. magnus, great. When joined 
to the substantive, it forms a descriptive appellation ; e.g. vir mag- 
nus (the property itself is expressed by magnitudo). 

Substantives and Adjectives are comprised in the class of nouns. 

A noun which denotes a number, is called a numeral, nomen 
numerale, and is usually an adjective, inasmuch as it serves to 
describe a thing by its number ; e.g. tres homines. The number, 
however, may be conceived and described as a thing by itself, and 
the word is then a substantive ; e.g. millia, thousands. 

Instead of naming an object, we may designate it by pointing to 
some relation in which it stands. An indicative word of this kind 
is called a pronoun : e.g. hie, this here ; ille, that there ; ego, /; tu, 
thou. A pronoun may either be employed alone, to denote the idea, 
and then it stands as a substantive, e.g. ego, tu, hie ; or it may be 
combined with a substantive to define it more precisely, and then it 
is an adjective, e.g. hie, vir, ilia, domus. 

Obs. 1. Numerals and pronouns are not distinct classes of words in 
the same sense as the rest, since their use in the sentence is not different 
from that of the other nomina; they belong, therefore, to the class of 
nouns. In their inflection, they have some peculiarities. 



§ 25 OF INFLECTION OF WORDS. 19 

Obs. 2. The Latin language does not distinguish, like the English and 
many other languages, by the addition of a word (the article), whether 
a substantive is intended to denote a definite person or thing, or an 
indefinite one amongst several of the same kind : e.g. vir, the man, and 
a man; viri, the men, and simply men, — as the context may determine. 

3. A verb is that word which expresses the idea of an action, 
or condition of a thing, and thus forms an assertion, or proposition : 
e.g. vir sedet, the man sits ; puer currit, the boy runs. (The action 
or condition in itself is called sessio, cursus.) 

From the verb are derived certain forms, which are used as nouns, 
either to denote the action or condition more independently, e.g. 
legendo, by reading ; or to specify and describe some object, to 
which the action or condition appertains as a quality : e.g. liber lec- 
tus, the book read ; vir legens, the man reading. The substantive 
forms are called the Supine and Gerund ; the adjective form is 
termed the Participle. 

4. An adverb is a word which serves only for a stricter defini- 
tion of a description (with an adjective), or of an assertion (with 
a verb) : e.g. vir valde magnus, a very great man ; eqvus celeriter 
currit, the horse goes swiftly. 

5. Words which only denote a relation to a thing are called pre- 
positions (from praeponere, to put before) : e.g. in, in ; apud, with ; 
or at the house of; as, in urbe, in the town. 

6. Conjunctions mark the combination of individual words or 
whole sentences, aud their connection in discourse : e.g. et, and ; as, 
vir et femina, the man and the woman ; vir sedet et puer currit. 

Obs. Prepositions, conjunctions, and the adverbs derived from pro- 
nouns, are also called Particles. The same word may at one and the 
same time show the connection of two propositions, and by this con- 
nection define the assertion more exactly (e.g. turn venit, qvum ego 
absum), so that certain adverbs and conjunctions are intimately con- 
nected with each other. 

7. The interjections are mere sounds, which are called forth 
by certain feelings, but represent no idea ; as, ah ! They are there- 
fore only improperly called words. 

§ 25. Nouns and verbs are inflected (flectuntur, declinantur) ; 
i.e. altered in their form, in order to denote the various connections 
and relations of words in a proposition, and the various kinds of 
propositions. The change generally takes place only in the last 
part of the word ; the remaining part is more rarely varied either 



20 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 27 

in the pronunciation (veni from venio), or by a prefix (tetigi from 
tango). 

Of the adverbs, only a few have a certain inflection (that of com- 
parison) : the remaining adverbs, with the prepositions, conj unc- 
tions, and interjections, are indeclinable. 

Obs. Inflection sprung in part from the custom of subjoining certain 
words, which in pronunciation gradually became incorporated with those 
words to which they were appended, and could no longer be distin- 
guished (as e.g. the personal endings of the verbs originated from pro- 
nouns) , and in part from the pronunciation alone, which varied according 
to the way in which an idea was conceived or combined with other ideas : 
in this way originated the lengthening of the radical vowel (veni) , or the 
reduplication (tetigi) in the perfect. 

§ 26. That which remains of a word capable of inflection, after 
the variable terminations or affixes are removed, is called the stem, 
to which the signification of the word properly belongs : eg. ama- 
tor in amator-i, amator-es ; leg in leg-o, leg-is, leg-unt In 
most Latin words, the stem does not appear alone, but only as 
united with some termination. The stem and termination are fre- 
quently so incorporated that one or both undergo some modification. 

Obs. From the stem, we must distinguish the root; i.e. the original, 
simple primary word, which has received no accession of any kind. For 
many words not only have terminations of inflection, but are previously 
formed from other words by derivation and composition. 



CHAPTER n. 

OF GENDER AND INFLECTION BY CASES (declinatio) IN 

GENERAL. 1 

§ 27. The Latin substantives are considered as being either of 
the Masculine gender or the Feminine, or neither of the two : the 
last class is comprised under the appellation Neuter gender. The 
adjectives and participles have generally different forms, according 
to the gender of the substantive to which they belong : e.g. masc. 
vir magnus, a great man ; fern, femina magna, a great woman ; 

1 Declinatio properly signifies any grammatical inflection, but is now more particularly 
used in this restricted sense. 



§ 28 OF GENDER AND INFLECTION. 21 

neutr. folium magnum, a great leaf. In some words, the gender 
may be determined from the signification, but in by far the greater 
number it must be inferred from the termination. 

Obs. 1. The names of things, which have not, like living creatures, any 
actual sex, are often referred to the masculine or feminine gender, 
because in certain relations of things the imagination discovered a resem- 
blance with male or female qualities. But this comparison was very for- 
tuitous, so that no fixed rule can be founded on it ; and one often fails to 
perceive the ground for the determination, especially as in many in- 
stances words have changed their signification. From the termination, on 
the other hand, we can draw an inference as to the gender ; because 
many derivative and some inflectional endings (especially in the nom. and 
accus.) have been applied according to the gender of the words. 

Obs. 2. The gender of some words may be explained from the consider- 
ation, that they are properly adjectives, in which case regard is had to an 
omitted substantive ; so, for instance, annalis is masc. because liber is 
masc. Greek words generally retain the same gender which they have in 
Greek. 

§ 28, a. The following are Masculine, without reference to the 
ending. All general and particular appellations of men and beings 
of the male sex (vir, the man ; scriba, the clerk ; consul, the con- 
sul; poeta, the poet; Deus, God; genius, the genius)-, the male 
of animals (aries, the ram ; verres, the boar ; taurus, the bull) ; 
and the names of rivers and winds (Tiberis, Albis, Sequana, 
Garumna, Cremera, Etesiae). Of rivers, some few in a are ex- 
cepted, particularly AUia (Matrbna, Albula) and the imaginary 
rivers Lethe and Styx in the lower world, which are feminine; 
with some of barbarous origin (i.e. neither Latin nor Greek) in r, 
(e.g. Elaver), which are neuter. 

Obs. 1. Words which are only improperly used of a man, and strictly 
denote an impersonal object, are regulated by their termination and proper 
meaning : as, mancipium, a slave (strictly, property) ; acroama, a flate- 
player or jester (strictly, entertainment for the ear) . So also words which 
are used in an improper sense of men taken collectively: e.g. vigiliae, 
sentinels; auxilia, auxiliary troops. 

Obs. 2. The names of the months are masculine, as adjectives belong- 
ing to the word mensis understood, which is masculine ; e.g. Aprilis 
(frequently mensis Aprilis). 

h. The following are Feminine. All appellations of women and 
female beings : uxor, the wife ; soror, the sister ; socrus, the mother- 
in-law ; Dea, the goddess ; nympha, the nymph. The only excep- 



22 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 30 

tions are the terms of reproach scortum and prostibulum, which 
originally did not signify a person. 

Obs. The names of trees and towns with certain endings are also fem- 
inine, although these endings do not otherwise imply this gender. (See 
§ 39, b and c, and § 47.) 

§ 29. General names of persons, in which the distinction of sex 
is not thought of, are masculine; e.g. hostis, enemy: but some 
of them may be used as feminines, if a woman be expressly referred 
to, and these are therefore called Common ; e.g. civis Gaditanus, 
civis Gaditana. Such words are adolescens, a young man or 
woman ; affinis, a male or female relative ; antistes, a priest or 
priestess (though the latter is commonly expressed by antistlta) ; 
artifex, artist; civis, citizen; comes, attendant; conjux, husband 
or wife (generally the latter) ; dux, leader (male or female) ; 
heres, heir or heiress ; hostis, enemy ; infans, infant ; illterpres, 
interpreter ; municeps, citizen (of the same municipal town) ; 
obses, hostage ; parens, father or mother ; patruelis, cousin ; 
sacerdos, priest or priestess ; satelles, body-guard ; vates, seer. 

Obs. 1. The poets use also as common, — auctor, author; augur, 
soothsayer] custos, guardian; hospes, host or guest (the feminine is 
better hospita) ; judex, judge ; juvenis, youth; miles, soldier; par, 
comrade; testis, witness. 

Obs. 2. Some other words, though used sometimes of persons of the 
female sex, and in apposition to feminine substantives, are never them- 
selves found as feminine substantives with an adjective ; e.g. index, vin- 
dex, incola (vox index stultitiae). 

§ 30, a. The names of the different classes and species of ani- 
mals have usually a particular gender, either masculine or fem- 
inine, which is known by the termination, without reference to 
the actual sex of the animal named: e.g. the masculines, cancer, 
crab ; corvus, raven ; passer, sparrow ; piscis, fsh ; and the 
feminines, avis, bird; anas, duck; aqvila, eagle; feles, cat; 
vulpes, fox. These are called epicene (epicoena 1 ). The actual 
sex of the particular animal is denoted by the addition of 
mas (male), or femina (female) : e.g. anas mas, drake (also with 
the adjective masculus, anas mascula) ; vulpes femina, fox 
bitch. 

i 'EiTTLKOiva, common to both genders. 



§ 32 OP GENDER AND INFLECTION. 23 

b. Several names of classes of animals, usually masculine, are also 
(as nouns of common gender) used as feminine, if it be intended 
specially to designate a female, particularly bos, ox ; in the fern. 
cow ; and, occasionally, lepus, mus, elephantus, anser ; e.g. inures 
praegnantes repertae sunt (Plin. Maj.). 

c. The names of some species of animals are used (without refer- 
ence to the individual) both in the masculine and the feminine (of 
uncertain gender), as angvis, snake ; canis, dog ; camelus, camel; 
dama, deer; grus (almost always feminine), crane; serpens, 
serpent; sus (usually feminine), boar, or sow ; talpa (generally 
masculine), mole ; tigris, tiger. They are always used as femin- 
ines when a female is expressly spoken of. 

Obs. From the name of some species of animals, a proper feminine form 
is derived to denote the female: e.g. agnus, lamb, agna; cervus, 
stag, cerva, hind ; eqvus, horse, stallion, eqva, mare; gallus, cock; 
gallina, hen. On the other hand, from the feminines simia, ape ; colii- 
bra, snake; lacerta, lizard; luscinia, niglvtingale, — wliich are gen- 
erally used as epicenes of the whole class, — a masculine form, 
simius, coluber, lacertus, luscinius, is sometime given. (Columba 
and columbus, dove, as a class ; columbus, the male ; columba, the 
female.) 

§ 31. The following are Neuter. All indeclinable substantives : 
e.g. fas, right ; nefas, wrong ; gummi, gum ; and all words which 
are used as substantives, without being actually such; e.g. scire 
tuum, your knowledge ; also every word quoted with a view to its 
form merely : e.g. hoc ipsum dill, this very word diu ; arx est 
monosyllabum, arx is a monosyllable. For this reason, also, the 
names of the letters are neuter ; though they are sometimes used as 
feminine, with a reference to littera understood. 

Obs. So likewise the names of ships and dramatic compositions, even 
though they be not feminine, take feminine adjectives ; navis, the ship ; 
or fabula, the play, being understood (per synesim, according to the 
signification) ; e.g. Eunuchus acta est (Svet.), the play entitled Eunu- 
chus ; Centauro invehitur magna (Virg.) , the great ship Centaur. (The 
same occurs, though more rarely, and only in some particular writers, 
with the names of plants, herba being understood.) 

§ 32. The Latin language distinguishes between the Singular 
and the Plural. 

In order to express the connection and relations of ideas, nouns 



24 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§33 



have six forms or cases (casus ; strictly, falls) ; casus nominati- 
VUS (by which the thing is named) ; accusativus (which denotes 
the object of an action ; e.g. pater castlgat filium, the father chas- 
tises his son) ; vocativus (by which a person is called to) ; geni- 
tivus (which denotes a connection or possession ; e.g. domus patris, 
the father's house) ; dativus (which denotes the person to whom 
any thing is given ; e.g. pater dat filio librum, the father gives his 
son a book) ; ablativus (which denotes means, place, circumstances, 
&c. ; e.g. hasta, with the spear). 

All substantives do not, however, have different forms for all 
these cases in both numbers. In the plural, the dative and ablative 
are always alike. In all neuter words, the nominative and accusa- 
tive are always the same. The vocative is distinguished from 
the nominative in only a very few genuine Latin words (in the 
second declension), never in the plural, or in words of the neuter 
gender. 

Obs. The nominative and vocative are termed casus recti, the others 
obliqvi; but the accusative, both in its form and application, is more 
nearly related to the nominative than to the other cases. 

§ 33. The case-endings are not the same in all words. 
There are five kinds of inflection or declensions, of which the 
endings are, — 











SINGULAR 






Decl. 1. 




ii. 


III. 


rv. 


Nom. 


a (e, 


as, es) 


us, er 


s, (or 


us 








n. um 


undetermined) . 


N. U 


Yoc. 


a (e, 


a) 


e — 


— 


— 


Ace. 


am ( 


en) 


um 


em (im) 

N. like the nom. 


um, u 


Gen. 


ae 




i 


is 


us 


Dat. 


ae 




o 


i 


ui, u 


Abl. 


a 




o 


e(i) 

PLURAL. 


u 


NOM. 


ae 




i, n. a 


es, n. a (ia) 


us, n. ua 


Yoc. 


ae 




i, n. a 


es, n. a (ia) 


us, n. ua 


Ace. 


as 




os, n. a 


— 


— 


Gen. 


arum 


orum 


um (ium) 


uum 


Dat. 


is 




is 


ibus 


ibus (ub 


Abl. 


is 




is 


ibus 


ibus (ub 



V. 



em 

ei 
ei 
e 



§34 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



25 



Obs. 1. There are properly but two series of endings; but they are 
connected in different ways with the stem, and also occasionally inter- 
mixed. In the first and second declension, the endings, which were 
originally alike, have become united with the last vowel of the stem (in 
the first declension a, in the second u, according to the older pronuncia- 
tion 6), or have expelled it. The third and fourth declensions have the 
same endings : but in the third declension, the stem ends in a conso- 
nant ; in the fourth, in u. In the fifth declension, the stem ends in e; 
and the endings are partly those of the first and second, partly those of 
the third declension. 

Obs. 2. It cannot always be known by the nominative alone to which 
declension a word belongs, because this case may have the same ending 
in different declensions ; e.g. us in the second, third, and fourth. 

Obs. 3. Of the Greek substantives which have been adopted into the 
Latin language, those which were most frequently used, and were intro- 
duced at the earliest period, acquired a completely Latin form, occasion- 
ally with some change in the stem. From the Greek word Ttoirpcr^ 
is formed, for example, the Latin poeta; from yaQtij^ (masc.) the Latin 
charta (fern.). Other Greek words, on the contrary, retained their 
Greek form and ending: e.g. dvvuoxr^, dynastes; ^4yyiar t g, Anchises. 
In some of the cases, these words have partially Greek iniiections. 
Writers vary from each other in this respect, sometimes keeping nearer to 
the Latin, sometimes to the Greek form. Where both are in use, it is 
better to adhere to the former in writing Latin. 

Obs. 4. For the peculiarities in the declension of the numerals and pro- 
nouns, see chapters xi. and xii. 



CHAPTER IH. 



FIRST DECLENSION, 



§ 34. All originally Latin words of the first declension end in the 
nominative in a, and are declined as follows : — 

(mensa, table; scriba, clerk.) 



SING. 



PLTJR. 



SING. 



PLTJR. 



NOM. 


mens a 


mens ae 


scrib a 


scrib ae 


Voc. 


mens a 


mens ae 


scrib a 


scrib ae 


Ace. 


mens am 


mens as 


scrib am 


scrib as 


Gen. 


mens ae 


mens arum 


scrib ae 


scrib arum 


Dat. 


mens ae 


mens is 


scrib ae 


scrib is 


Abl. 


mens a 


mens is 


scrib a 


scrib is 



26 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 35 

In this way are declined also the adjectives and participles in a 
(fem.) ; as, magna, great ; picta, painted ; mensa rotunda, a round 
table. 

Obs. 1. In the older poets, ae of the gen. sing, is sometimes resolved 
into ai; e.g. aulai, pictai (Virg.). 

Obs. 2. At a very early period, the gen. sometimes ended in as. 
Hence the word familia, family, when it is compounded with pater, 
mater, filius, filia, has the gen. familias ; e.g. paterfamilias, father 
of a family (ace. patremfamilias, gen. patrisfamilias, &c.) ; plur. 
patresfamilias,/a^er5 of families ; though we find also paterfamiliae, 
patresfamiliarum. 

Obs. 3. In the gen. plur. of some words, um, archaic (as in the third 
declension) , is used instead of arum, especially drachmum, amphorum 
(with the addition of a numeral ; trium amphorum), for drachmarum, 
amphorarum ; by the poets also in the words in gena and cola (from 
gigno, to beget, to bear; and colo, to till) ; e.g. terrigena, earthborn ; 
coelicola inhabitant of heaven ; and in patronymics in des ; e.g. 
Aeneadum for Aeneadarum ; so also in some Greek names of peoples ; 
e.g. Lapithum for Lapitharum. 

Obs. 4. Some few words, which have masculines in us corresponding 
to them in the second declension, particularly dea, goddess, and filia, 
daughter (deus, filius), rarely liberta, freed-iooman (libertus), and a 
few others, have in the dat. and abl. plur., besides the regular form (is), 
another, abus; e.g. dis deabusqve omnibus (Cic), cum duabus fili- 
abus virginibus (Li v.). 

Obs. 5. Concerning the gen. and dat. of una, sola, and some other 
adjectives in a, see § 37, Obs. 2. 



§ 35. Greek Forms. To the first declension belong some 
Greek words and proper names in e, as, and es (77, ag, qg), which 
are somewhat irregular in the singular (see § 33, Obs. 3). 

(epitome, abridgment ; Aeneas, a proper name ; anagnostes, reader.) 



NOM. 


epitom e 


Aene as 


anagnost es 


Voc. 


epitom e 


Aene a 


anagnost a 


Acc. 


epitom en 


Aene am 


anagnost en 






(Aene an) 


(anagnost am) 


Gen. 


epitom es 


Aene ae 


anagnost ae 


Dat. 


epitom ae 


Aene ae 


anagnost ae 


Abl. 


epitom e 


Aene a 


anagnost a (an 



§ 36 FIRST DECLENSION. 27 

Obs. 1. The greater number of common nouns in e, especially the 
names of the arts and sciences in ce (e.g. musice, logice),have also (and 
this is to be preferred) the purely Latin form, — musica, logica, musi- 
cam, &c. Of proper names, some have almost always the Latin form, 
e.g. Helena, Creta; others most frequently the Greek, as Circe; but in 
this respect writers differ. 

In answer to the question, where ? the names of towns always have the 
Latin genitive ; as, Sinopae, at Sinope. 

Obs. 2. The Greek nominative as was sometimes changed by the older 
writers, and in the language of common life to a; e.g. Mena, Appella. 
In the accusative, am is most common in prose- writers, an in the 
poets. 

Obs. 3. Words in es rarely have the Latin form of the nom. in a, either 
in proper names (e.g. Aeeta), or in common nouns (e.g. sophista, better 
sophistes), except in words which have been completely Latinized, and 
never have a Greek form ; e.g. poeta. The voc, besides the termination 
a (Atrida), has also e, when this termination occurs in Greek (in patro- 
nymics, e.g. Atride) ; sometimes a (e.g. Anchisa, Virg.). 

Obs. 4. Of the proper names in es, which in Greek belong to the first 
declension, some are declined in Latin according to the third (Aeschi- 
nes, Apelles, those in des which are not patronymics, e.g. Alcibiades, 
Euripides; and barbaric names, as Astyages, Xerxes). In the accus., 
however, they have likewise en; as, in the first declension, Aeschinem. 
Some are found declined in both ways ; e.g. Orestes (mostly like the 
third). The common noun acinaces, a sabre, follows the third declen- 
sion ; sorites (the name of an argument in logic) is declined in the sing, 
according to the third, in the plural according to the first declension. 
Satrapes, a satrap, which follows the first, has, however, also the gen. 
satrapis (Third Declension). 

§ 36. Gender. All substantives of the first declension in a are 
feminine, if they are not appellations of men (as, scriba, clerk; 
nauta, sailor; collega, colleague; auriga, charioteer; advena, 
new-comer) ; or names of rivers (see § 28, a). Hadria, the Adri- 
atic, is also masculine. (With respect to dama, talpa, see § 30, a.) 

Words in e are feminine, those in as and es masculine ; e.g. 
cometes. All in as are proper names. 



28 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 37 



CHAPTER IV. 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



§ 37. Words of the second declension end mostly in us and 
(neut.) um, some in er. They are declined in the following 
manner : — 



Nom. 


domin us, lord. 


puer, boy. 


sign um, sign 


Voc.' 


domin e 


puer 


sign um 


Ace. 


domin um 


puer um 


sign um 


Gen. 


domin i 


puer i 


signi 


Dat. 


domin o 


puer o 


sign o 


Abl. 


domin o 


puer o 

PLURAL. 


signo 


N~OM. 


domin i 


pueri 


sign a 


Yoc. 


domin i 


puer i 


sign a 


Ace. 


domin os 


puer os 


sign a 


Gen. 


domin orum 


puer orum 


sign orum 


Dat. 


domin is 


puer is 


sign is 


Abl. 


domin is 


puer is 


sign is 



In the same way are declined the adjectives in us and er (masc), and 
um (neut.); e.g. bonus, good; miser, wretched; bonum, miserum. 
Dominus bonus, signum magnum, puer miser. 

Like puer is also declined the only word that terminates in ir, — vir, 
the man, virum, viri, viro, — together with its compounds ; e.g. trium- 
vir, and the national appellation Trevir, as well as the adjective satur, 
sated (neut. saturum, saturi, &c.). 

Most words in er have the e only in the nom. and voc. (where it has 
been inserted to facilitate the pronunciation), but not in the other cases, 
where it is dropped before r : e.g. ager, the field, agrum, agri, agro, plur. 
agri, &c. ; liber, the book, librum, &c. The e is retained in the sub- 
stantives adulter, the adulterer; socer, the father-in-law ; gener, the son- 
in-law ; Liber, the god Liber, or Bacchus ; liberi, liberorum, children ; 
puer, a boy ; vesper, evening. In the adjectives asper, 1 rough ; liber, 
free ; lacer, torn ; miser, loretched ; prosper, prosperous (better pros- 
perus) ; tener, tender ; and in those which end in -fer and -ger (from 
fero, to convey, bring, and gero, to carry) ; mortifer, deadly, mortife- 

1 Aspris for asperis is found in Virgil. 



§ 37 SECOND DECLENSION. 29 

rum, mortiferi ; aliger, winged ; armiger, armor-bearer ; and in the 
national appellations, Iber, Iberum, Iberi, and Celtiber, Celtiberum, 
Celtiberi. Dexter, right, has dexteri, and more frequently dextri ; 
Mulciber (Mulceber), an epithet of the god Vulcan, Mulciberi and 
Mulcibri. 

Obs. 1. Words in ius and ium have, according to analogy, ii in the gen. 
In the earlier period, however, only one i was used in the substantives (not 
so in the adjectives) ; e.g. Appi, from Appius ; ingeni, conslli, instead of 
ingenii, consilii, from ingenium, genius, consilium, counsel (but egre- 
gii, from egregius, distinguished) ; and so always in verse in Virgil and 
Horace (Capitoli immobile saxum; elided, Capitol' imm. Virg.). 
Afterwards, this form became obsolete. 

Obs. 2. The following adjectives and pronouns, which in the masc. 
and neut. follow the second, and in the fern, the first declension : unus, 
solus, totus, ullus, nullus, alius, alter, uter, neuter, with the com- 
pounds of uter (uterqve, utercunqve, uterlibet, utervis, alteruter), 
have in all genders ius in the gen., and i in the dat., — unius, solius 
totius, ullius, nullius, alius, alterius, utrius, neutrius, uni, soli, toti, 
ulli, nulli, alii, alteri, utri, neutri. (So also in the fern., — una, unam, 
unius, uni, abl. una.) In verse, the i is sometimes made short in the 
gen., — most frequently so in alterius (alterius). The regular forms 
are very rare : e.g. alii generis, in Varro ; aliae pecudis, in Cicero ; 
nullo usui, in Caesar. 

Obs. 3. Words in ius (jus) have in the voc. not ie (je), but i: e.g. 
Mercuri, Gal (Cai), Pompei (sometimes in verse Pompei, as a dissyl- 
lable) ; Demetri ; fili, son ; geni, guardian spirit ; Feretri, from the 
adj. Feretrius. But most common nouns and adjectives (as, gladius, 
the sword ; fluvius, the river; egregius) have no vocative. Greek ad- 
jectives — e.g. Cynthius, and proper names in ius (also Greek) or 
eus, eiog, e.g. Arius — have ie. Meus makes mi in the voc. Deus 
always has the voc. like the nom. (Compare Syntax, § 299, 6, 
Obs. 1.) 

Obs. 4. The gen. plur. of some substantives is occasionally formed in 
um, instead of orum ; viz., of the appellations of money, weights, and 
measures, — nummum, sestertium, denarium, talentum, modium, 
medimnum, from nummus, a piece of money ; sestertius, a sesterce (a 
certain coin) ; denarius (also a coin) ; talentum, a talent (a sum of 
money) ; modinus, medimnus, a bushel (especially after millia ; e.g. 
duo millia nummum, decern millia talentum, but tantuni nummo- 
rum) ; and of the distributive numerals ; e.g. senum, denum, from seni, 
six apiece ; deni, ten apiece ; sometimes also that of the cardinal num- 
bers in centi (genti) ; e.g. ducentum pedum ; further, liberum, from 
liberi, children ; deum, from deus, duumvirum, triumvirum (also 
liberorum, &c.) ; and finally of some other words in certain combina- 



30 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 38 

tions ; e.g. praefectus fabrum, prefect of the workmen (in the army), 
from faber ; in the poets also virum, from vir ; and of the names of 
nations, as Argivum, Pelasgum, for Argivorum, Pelasgorum. Com- 
pare § 34, Obs. 3. 

Obs. 5. The word deus has the regular dei, deis, in the nom. and 
dat. plural, but more frequently di, dis ; also, dii, diis. 

§ 38. Greek Forms. 1. Greek proper names of towns and 
islands, and some few common nouns, are sometimes found with 
the Greek termination OS, on, in the nom. and ace. sing. : e.g. Delos, 
ace. Delon; scorpios, a scorpion; Pelion (neut.). In a few soli- 
tary instances, we find in names that are very rarely used oe (oi) in 
the nom. plur. ; e.g. canephoroe, the basket-bearers ; and on in the 
gen. plur. of adjectives in the titles of books (e.g. libri Georgicon) ; 
and in a few proper names (colonia Theraeon, Sail.). The proper 
name IldvOoog, contracted Tldvdovg, is called by Virgil Panthus, voc. 
Panthu. 

Obs. 1. Greek proper names in Qog, preceded by a consonant, generally 
have their termination in Latin (in prose always) in er ; Alexander, 
Antipater, Teucer, Meleager, gen. Alexandri, &c. (Yet we have 
Codrus, and, in the poets, Evandrus, and the like.) So also hexame- 
ter, but diametrus. 

Obs. 2. Greek proper names, which follow the so-called Attic second 
declension, either take a purely Latin form (e.g. Tyndareiis, from Tvrdd- 
Qecog, or retain some Greek terminations, as in the nom. Athos, Andro- 
geos, Ceos, in the accus. Athon. The name of mount Athos is also 
inflected according to the third declension; Atho, Athonem, and so 
also Androgeo, Androgeonem. 

Obs. 3. Greek proper names in svg (gen. ecog) are either declined with 
a Latin form — thus, nom. Orpheus (as a dissyllable), accus. Orpheum, 
gen. Orphei (and Orphei), dat. and abl. Orpheo (without a voc), — or 
with a Greek form (like the third declension) ; thus, nom. Orpheus, 
voc. Orpheu, ace. Orphea, gen. Orpheos, dat. Orphei (Orphei) ; but 
the forms which follow the third declension, with the exception of the 
accus., are for the most part found only in the poets. The gen. Achil- 
lei and Ulixei £ Afllfavg) are also formed in this way; though Achil- 
les, Ulixes, otherwise follow the third declension. 

The name Perseus (IIsQGevg) is sometimes declined like Orpheus; 
Perseus, ace. Persea, gen. Persei, dat. Perseo and Persi (for Persei), 
abl. Perseo ; sometimes it has the form of Perses, and follows the first 
declension. 



§39 



SECOND DECLENSION. 31 



§ 39. Gender. Words in us (os) and r are masculine, those in 
um (on) are neuter. 

But of the words in us, the following are feminine : — 

a. The words alvus, stomach; carbasus, linen; colus, distaff (rarely 
masc.) ; humus, ground ; vannus, winnowing shovel. 

b. The names of towns and islands, — e.g. Corinthus, Rhodus, — 
with the following names of countries: Aegyptus, Chersonesus, 
Epirus, Peloponnesus. (These names of places in us are all Greek ; 
Canopus, however, is masculine.) 

c. The names of all trees and of some shrubs: e.g. alnus, alder; 
fagus, beech ; ficus, Jig-tree (also Jig) ; malus, apple-tree ; pirus, pear- 
tree; pomus, apple-tree; populus, poplar; ulmus, elm, &c. ; x buxus, 
box-tree; juniperus, juniper; nardus, nard (an odoriferous bush); 
papyrus, papyrus plant (rarely masc.) ; with some Greek names of 
plants, chiefly ending in os (buglossos), and the word balanus, acorn, 
or date. 

Obs. Other Latin and Latinized names of plants and flowers are mas- 
culine : as, acanthus, acanthus; amaranthus, amaranth; asparagus, 
asparagus ; boletus, mushroom ; calamus, straw, reed ; carduus, this- 
tle ; dumus, thorn-bush ; fungus, mushroom ; helleborus, hellebore ; 
hyacinthus, hyacinth ; pampinus, vine (rarely fem.) ; rubus, bramble, 
&c. 

d. Some words originally Greek, which in Greek are feminine, as 
those compounded with odog : methodus, method; periodus, period; 
and the words atbmus, atom ; antidotus, antidote (also antidotum, 
neut.) ; dialectus, dialect; diametrus, diameter ; diphthongus, diph- 
thong ; paragraphus, paragraph (which words are originally adjectives, 
with a substantive understood) ; further, the names of most precious 
stones, e.g. amethystus. 2 Lastly arctos (the constellation), the Bear. 
Barbitos, lyre, is both masculine and feminine. 

The following in us are neuter : virus, poison ; vulgus, the common 
people (rarely masc.) ; and pelagus, the sea (to Tts'Xayog). 

1 On the other hand, pomum, apple ; pirum, pear; malum, apple. (Malus, a ship's 
mast, is masc.) Also buxum, boxwood. 

2 But smaragdus, beryllus, opalus (and the Latin carbunculus), are masculine. 



32 LATIN GRAMMAR. §40 

CHAPTER V. 

THIRD DECLENSION. 

§ 40. Words of the Third Declension have various endings in the 
nominative, since they either attach the nominative ending s to the 
stem, or remain without any special ending for that case. The 
stem, to which the endings are affixed in the other cases, ends with 
a consonant, but is often varied in the nom. ; so that, before we can 
decline a word, it is necessary to know, not only the nom., but also 
the stem, from one of the other cases ; but of this we shall speak 
afterwards (§ 41). (We find the stem by taking the ending is from 
the genitive sing.) 

In consequence of varying of the stem, words which are different 
in the other cases may have the same ending in the nom. ; e.g. 
caedes, death-blow, gen. caedis ; miles, soldier, gen. militis ; inter- 
pres, interpreter, gen. interpretis. 

The rest of the declension may be seen from the following exam- 
ples, which show at the same time the different forms of the words, 
according as the stem remains unaltered in the nom., or is varied 
by taking an ending and by the pronunciation. 

1. Masculine and Feminine Gender. 

a. Words in which the nominative is simply the stem, without 
any alteration whatever, so that the other case-endings are merely 
affixed to it. 

(consul, consul; dolor, pain.) 

PLUR. 

consul es 
consul es 
consul es 
consul urn 
consul ibus 
consul ibus 
Obs. Stems in 1 or r never have a nominative ending, 

b. Words in which the nominative ending s is affixed to the stem, 
which is otherwise unchanged. 

(urbs, city.) 
Sing. Nom. urbs Plur. urb es 

Voc. urbs urb es 

Ace. urb em urb es 

Gen. urb is urb ium 

Dat. urb i urb ibus 

Abl. urb e urb ibus 

Obs. Of the termination ium (urb-ium) in the gen. pi., see § 44, 1. 





SING. 


K 


consul 


y. 


consul 


A. 


consul em 


G. 


consul is 


D. 


consul i 


A. 


consul e 



SING. 


PLUR. 


dolor 


dolor es 


dolor 


dolor es 


dolor em 


dolor es 


dolor is 


dolor um 


dolor i 


dolor ibus 


dolor e 


dolor ibus 



§40 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



33 



c. Words in which the nom. ending s is affixed to the stem with 
the vowel i or e (so that is and es are dropped from the nom. before 
the other case-endings are added). 

(avis, bird ; caedes, murder.) 



SING. 




PLUR. 


SING. 


PLUR. 


1ST. avis 




av es 


caedes 


caed es 


V. avis 




av es 


caedes 


caed es 


A. av em 




aves 


caed em 


caed es 


G. av is 




avium 


caed is 


caed ium 


D, avi 




av ibus 


caedi 


caed ibus 


A. av e (avi) 


av ibus 


caede 


caed ibus 



Obs. 1. These words, the stem of which is found by the rejection of 
is and es, are called, to distinguish them from other words of the same 
declension in is and es, parisyllables, because they have the same number 
of syllables in the nom. as in the other cases singular. 

Obs. 2. Of the ending i in the ablative, see § 42, 3. 



d. Words in which, when the s of the nom. is affixed, the stem is 
also changed by the omission of a consonant (d or t), or by the 
passing of i into e, or in both ways. 

(aetas, age ; judex, judge ; miles, soldier.) 







SINGULAR. 




Nom. 


aetas 


judex 


miles 


Yoc. 


aetas 


judex 


miles 


Ace. 


aetat em 


judic em 


milit em 


Gen. 


aetat is 


judic is 


militis 


Dat. 


aetat i 


judic i 


milit i 


Abl. 


aetat e 


judic e 

PLURAL. 


milit e 


Nom. 


aetat es 


judic es 


milit es 


Yoc. 


aetat es 


judic es 


milit es 


Ace. 


aetat es 


judic es 


milit es 


Gen. 


aetat um 


judic um 


milit um 


Dat. 


aetat ibus 


judic ibus 


milit ibus 


Abl. 


aetat ibus 


judic ibus 


milit ibus 


Obs. i is changed into e, 


because the open 


syllable becomes a close 


one. See § 5, 


c. 


3 





34 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§40 



e. Words in which the nom., without any termination affixed, devi- 
ates from the stem for the sake of the pronunciation. 

(sermo, the discourse ; pater, father ; mos, custom.) 

SINGULAR. 



Nom. 


sermo 


pater 


mos 


Yoc. 


sermo 


pater 


mos 


Ace. 


sermon em 


patr em 


morem 


Gen. 


sermon is 


patr is 


mor is 


Dat. 


sermon i 


patri 


mor i 


Abl. 


sermon e 


patr e 

PLURAL. 


mor e 


Nom. 


sermon es 


patr es 


mor es 


Voc. 


sermon es 


patr es 


mor es 


Ace. 


sermon es 


patr es 


mor es 


Gen. 


sermon um 


patr um 


mor um 


Dat. 


sermon ibus 


patr ibus 


mor ibus 


Abl. 


sermon ibus 


patr ibus 


mor ibus 



Obs. In sermo, n has been dropped ; in pater, e has been intro- 
duced ; in mos, s belongs to the stem, and is changed in the gen. into r 
(§8). 

2. Neuter Gender. The words of this gender never affix s in 
the nom., but the stem is sometimes different in the nom. and in 
the other cases on account of the pronunciation. 

a. Words with the stem unchanged. 

(animal, animal.) 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 



Nom. 


animal 


animal ia 


Yoc. 


animal 


animal ia 


Ace. 


animal 


animal ia 


Gen. 


animal is 


animal ium 


Dat. 


animal i 


animal ibus 


Abl. 


animal i 


animal ibus 



Obs. On the termination ia in the plural, see § 43, 1. 
b. Words which have the stem different in the nom. and in the 
other cases. 

(nomen, name ; corpus, body ; lac, milk.) 

SINGULAR. 

corpus lac 

corpus lac 

corpus lac 

corpbr is lact is 

corpor i lact i 

corpor e lact e 



Nom. 


nomen 


Voc. 


nomen 


Ace. 


nomen 


Gen. 


nomin is 


Dat. 


nomin i 


Abl. 


nomin e 



§ 40 THIRD DECLENSION. 35 

PLURAL. 

corpor a 

corpor a (not used.) 

corpor a 

corpor urn 

corpor ibus 

corpor ibus 

Obs. In corpus, s is not a mere termination, but belongs to the stem, 
and is changed in the gen. into r (§ 8). In lac, the last consonant of the 
stem has been dropped in the nom. (§ 10). 

c. Words in e, which e does not belong to the stem, and is 
dropped before the other case-endings. 



Nom. 


nomin a 


Voc. 


nomin a 


Ace. 


nomin a 


Gex. 


nomin urn 


Dat. 


nomin ibus 


Abl. 


nomin ibus 





(mare, 


the sea.) 




SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 


jNTom. 


mare 




mar ia 


Yoc. 


mare 




mar ia 


Ace. 


mare 




mar ia 


Gex. 


maris 




mar ium 


Dat. 


mar i 




mar ibus 


Abl. 


mar i 




mar ibus 



Many adjectives also follow the third declension, and are declined 
like those substantives, with which they agree in the nominative 
and in the form of the stem ; e.g. gravis, heavy (masc. and fern.) 
like avis (but in the ablative only i, gravi), and grave (neut.), 
like mare. Dolor gravis, corpus grave. In the neuter gender 
of adjectives, the accusative is always like the nominative, whatever 
be the termination of the latter ; and the plural, like that of the 
neuter substantives, is formed in a (ia). 

§ 41. In the third declension, the gender cannot be ascertained 
from the nom. alone, but from the stem (as seen in the other cases) 
and the nominative together. There are, however, some forms of 
the stem and the nom. in which no rule could be given for the gen- 
der (especially the masc. and fern.), which would not be liable to 
numerous exceptions. Of some forms of the stem, only a few, or 
even single, examples occur. 1 



1 From the nominative alone, only so much can be inferred of the gender, that a word 
which ends in an s, which does not belong to the stem (and consequently is not found in the 
other cases in the form of s or r), is either masculine or feminine ; but that on the other 
hand it is neuter, if it neither ends in s, nor belongs to one of those forms which never i 
3 for the sake of the pronunciation (as the stems in 1, n, r) ; e.g. rete, caput. 



36 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 41 

All names of male and female beings follow the natural gender (ac- 
cording to § 28 and 29), although the form may otherwise properly 
belong to another gender : e.g. uxor, wife, feminine ; though words 
in or, gen. oris, are otherwise masculine : Juno, the goddess Juno, fern. 
(o, orris, masc.) ; flamen, priest, masc. (en, irris, neut.). So also the 
names of rivers are masculine, without reference to the termination 
(§ 28). 

To the third declension belong a number of Greek or foreign (bar- 
barous) words, which came from the Greeks to the Romans, and which 
are declined according to the corresponding third declension in Greek ; 
these conform in Latin, in respect both of the stem and gender, to the 
1 "Greek. 

1. The following summary shows what genitives (and hence, at 
the same time, what stems) correspond to the various nominatives, 
and also gives the gender for every form of the nom. and of the 
stem. 

The stem of a substantive or adjective, the nominative of which is 
known, may be often determined from other cognate words, especially 
verbs, since in them the letters are found which, in the nominative, 
have been dropped or changed: e.g. custos, gen. custodis, guar- 
dian, because we have custodio, to guard; nex, necis, death, on 
account of neco, to hill ; but grex, gregis, herd, on account of con- 
grego, to assemble, 

Nom. e, gen. is, Neuter ; as, mare, maris, the sea. 
The abl. of Praeneste, the name of a town, is sometimes fern, by 
synesis ; e.g. Praeneste sub ipsa. (Compare § 31, Obs.) 
Nom. o, gen. onis, Masculine ; as, sermo, sermonis, discourse. 

But words in io, which are derived from verbs or adjectives, are Femi- 
nine : e.g. lectio, reading ; oratio, speech ; legio, legion (from lego, to 
select) ; regio, district (from rego, to rule) ; natio, nation (from nas- 
cor, to be born) ; coenatio, dining-room (from coeno, to dine) ; 
seditio, uproar (from eo, to go, and se) ; communio, community (from 
communis, common) ; consortio, the community (from consors, par- 
ticipating). (Other words in io are masculine : e.g. papilio, butterfly ; 
septentrio, north ; vespertilio, bat ; scipio, sto iff ; unio, pearl ; senio, 
six ; ternio, three ; so also pugio, dagger, though from pungo.) 

Further, some names of (Spanish) towns are feminine : as, Barcino, 
Barcelona ; Tarraco, Tarragona. (Other names of towns are mascu- 
line; as, Sulmo, Narbo, Vesontio). 

Obs. Some names of nations have the gen. 5nis: as, Macedo, Seno 
(Laco, Laconis ; Io, Ionis.) 



§ 41 THIRD DECLENSION. 37 

Nom. o, gen. inis (in do and go), Feminine : hirundo, hirundinis, 
swallow ; imago, imagmis, picture ; Carthago, Carthaginis. 

But the following are masculine : ordo, order ; cardo, hinge ; and 
usually mar go, edge. (Cupido, as the name of a god, is masculine ; 
as a common noun, it is masculine in the poets only ; in all other cases, 
feminine.) 

Obs. The following words in do and go have onis, and are conse- 
quently masculine : praedo, robber ; spado, eunuch ; ligo, spade ; 
mango, slave-dealer; harpago, hook. 

Nom. o, gen. mis (without a preceding d or g) , masculine : turbo, 
whirlwind; and besides, only homo, man; nemo, no one; and the name 
Apollo. 

The feminine, caro, flesh, gen. carnis, stands by itself. 

Nom. c, Neuter ; as, lac, lactis, milk. 

(Besides lac, we have only the word alec, alecis, brine, from fish, 
which has also the form alex, alecis, fem.) 

Nom. al, gen. alis, Neuter ; as, animal, animalis, the animal. 

Sal, salt (which is masculine, rarely neuter in the sing.), has salis, 
So also foreign proper names ; as, Hannibal, Hannibalis. 

The following substantives in 1 are to be noticed separately : the 
neuters, fel, gall ; mel, honey ; fellis, mellis. The masculine, sol, 
solis, the sun ; some masculine names of persons in sul : consul, con- 
sul; exsul, exile; praesul, leader in a dance; consulis, &c. ; with 
pugil, boxer, pugflis ; and vigil, sentinel, vigHis (as an adjective, 
watchful). 1 

Nom. en, gen. Inis, Neuter ; as, nomen, nominis, the name. 

The following are masculine: pecten, comb; and, from their signifi- 
cation, flamen, priest ; cornicem, horn-blower ; fidicen, harper ; -tibl- 
cen, flute-player ; tubicen, trumpeter. 

Nom. en, gen. enis, Masculine ; as, ren, renis, the kidney (com- 
monly only in the plur., renes). 

Obs. Besides this, only the following are similarly declined : lien, 
spleen ; and the Greek words splen, spleen ; lichen, a disease of the 
skin ; attagen, partridge ; Anien, the name of a river (in the nom. 
likewise Anio) ; with the feminines Siren, Siren ; and Troezen, a Greek 
town. 



1 Mugil, mugilis, a kind of fish ; also, nom. mugilis. with the nominative termina- 
tion is. 



38 LATIN GRAMMAR. §41 

Nom. ar, gen. aris, Neuter ; as, calcar, calcaris, spur. 

The following (also neuter) have the gen. aris: baccar, a kind of 
plant ; jubar, radiance; nectar, nectar; and the masculine names Caesar, 
Hamilcar, Arar, the Saone ;i and lar, laris, household god. 

The following, which are neuters, are to be separately noticed : far 
farris, corn ; and the Greek word hepar, hepatis, liver. 

Nom. er, gen. eris, Masculine ; as, career, carceris, prison. 1 

But the following are neuter: cadaver, corpse; tuber, swelling (also 
truffle)', uber, udder; verber (only in the plur. verbera), blow. 
And all botanical names : e.g. acer, maple ; papaver, poppy ; piper, 
pepper. Tuber, a kind of apple, is masculine. (Mulier, woman, 
fern.) 

Nom. er, gen. ris, Masculine ; as, venter, ventris, belly. 

Linter, boat, is feminine (so mater, mother) . 

In the same way are declined imber, shower, and all ending in ter 
(except only later, lateris, masc, brick). 

We must notice separately the two neuters, iter, itineris, journey ; 
and ver, veris, spring; with the name of the god Jupiter (Jovem), 
Jo vis, &c. (The nom. is compounded of the old name and the word 
pater.) 

Nom. or, gen. oris, Masculine ; as, dolor, doloris, pain. 

The following are feminine, by reason of their signification : soror, 
sister ; uxor, ivife. 

Obs. The words honor, honor, and lepor, wit, have frequently, in 
older writers (Cicero) , the nom. honos and lepos ; so also occasionally 
other words, if they are not derived from verbs ; e.g. labor, labor, 
labos. 

Nom. or, gen. oris, Neuter ; as, aequor, aequoris, the surface of 
the sea. 

(So marmor, marble; ador, spelt.) Arbor (arbos), tree, is fem- 
inine. 

The following is to be separately noticed: cor, cordis, heart, neu- 
ter. 

Nom. ur, gen. uris, Neuter : as, fulgur, fulguris, lightning ; 
Tibur, the city Tibur. 

The following are masculine : furfur, bran ; turtur, turtle-dove ; vul- 
tur, vulture ; and, from its signification, augur, a soothsayer. 

1 Also the two Greek words, aer, aether. 



§41 THIRD DECLENSION. 39 

Nom. ur, gen. oris, Neuter ; as, robur, roboris, strength. 

Of this kind, we have only the following : ebur, ivory ; femur, thigh ; 
jecur, liver. 

Fur, furis, thief, masc. from its signification, is to be separately 
noticed. 

Nom. as, gen. atis, Feminine ; as, aetas, aetatis, age. 

Anas, the duck, has anatis, fern. 

The following are to be separately noticed : the masculines, as, assis 
an as (a copper coin) ; mas, maris, male ; vas, vadis, surety ; and the 
neuter, vas, vasis, vessel (in the plur. vasa, vasorum, see § 5, 6) . 

Nom. es, gen. is Feminine : as, caedes, caedis, murder. 

Palumbes, wood-pigeon, masc. and fern. ; vepres, thorn-bush (not 
used in the nom., commonly in the plural), masc. Verres, boar, and 
the names of rivers, — e.g. Euphrates, — are masc. from the significa- 
tion. 

Obs. Some words in es, gen. is, have also is in the nom., with the 
same gender ; e.g. aedes, temple ; feles, cat ; vulpes, fox ; and aedis, 
felis, vulpis. 

Nom. es, gen. Itis, Masculine ; as, miles, milltis, soldier. 

Ales, bird (properly an adjective, winged), is masculine and femi- 
nine ; merges, sheaf, feminine. 1 

Nom. es, gen. etis, Masculine or Feminine : as, paries, parietis, 
wall, masculine ; seges, segetis, corn-field, feminine. 

Besides the above, the following are masc. from their signification : 
aries, ram ; interpres, interpreter. Abies, fir, and teges, mat, are femi- 
nine. 

The following are to be separately noticed : the masculines, bes, 
bessis, two-thirds of an as; pes, pedis, foot (with its compounds ;' as, 
sesqvipes, a foot and a half) ; praes, praedis, surety ; obses, hostage; 
and praeses, protector ; obsidis, praesidis; heres, heredis (common), 
heir or heiress : the feminines, merces, mercedis, wages ; qvies, qvi- 
etis, rest (reqvies, rest, recreation) ; Ceres, Cereris, the goddess 
Ceres. 

Obs. From pes comes the feminine compes (generally compedes, 
jAur.), fetters ; the adjective qvadrupes is used for any quadruped as a 
feminine or neuter substantive. As a feminine, it seems to have refer- 



1 Like miles are declined the personal names antistes, comes, eqves, hospes, 
pedes, satelles, veles ; and of other substantives, ames, cespes, fomes, gurges, 
limes, merges, palmes, poples, stipes, termes, trames, tudes. 



40 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 41 

ence to bestia ; as a neuter, to animal. It is also used as a masculine 
substantive when a horse is spoken of. 

The neuter, aes, aeris, copper, must be separately noticed. 

Nom. is, gen. is, Masculine or Feminine : as, piscis, piscis, fish ; 
avis, avis, bird. 

The following are masculine : amnis, river; axis, axle; callis, path 
(rarely fern.) ; canalis, conduit ; cassis, a huntsman' s net (generally 
casses, plur.) ; caulis, stalk; collis, hill; crinis, hair; ensis, sword; 
fascis, fagot ; finis, end, boundary (rarely fern., and that only in the 
singular signifying end) ; follis, bellows; funis, rope; fustis, club; 
ignis, f re; mensis, month; orbis, circle; panis, bread; piscis, fish ; 
postis, door-post ; scrobis, ditch (also scrobs, sometimes fern.) ; sen- 
tis, thorn-bush ; torqvis, collar (also torqves, rarely fern.) ; torris, 
firebrand; ungvis, nail; vectis, lever; vermis, worm. Further, some 
words originally adjectives, which are used as substantives, and with 
which a masculine substantive is understood : annalis, the year-book 
(liber) ; natalis, birthday (dies ; also natales, natalium, descent) ; 
molaris, mill-stone (lapis), grinder (dens) ; pugillares, pugillarium, 
writing-tablets (libri). Further, the compounds of as: e.g. decussis, 
ten asses ; manes, manium, spirits of the dead ; Lucretilis, the name 
of a mountain. (So also from their signification, hostis, testis, and 
the names of rivers ; as, Tiberis.) 

The following are more frequently masculine than feminine : angvis, 
snake ; canis, dog ; the following sometimes one, sometimes the other : 
corbis, basket ; clunis, the hind leg. 

The rest are feminine. 

Obs. Here, too, may be noticed the Greek words in sis (also femi- 
nine) which are derived from verbs : e.g. poesis ; the names of towns 
ending in polis : as, Neapolis ; and some few other words and feminine 
proper names. 

Nom. is, gen. eris, Masculine; as, cinis, cineris, ashes. 

Obs. In this way are declined only cucumis, cucumber, more rarely 
cucumis, in the gen. ; pulvis, dust ; and vomis, ploughshare, which has 
more frequently the form vomer. 1 

Nom. is, gen. Idis, Feminine ; as, cuspis, cuspidis, the point of a 
spear. 

Lapis, stone, is masculine ; also, from their signification, the names of 
rivers ; as, Phasis. 

1 The s in these words belongs to the stem, and has been changed into r in the genitive. 



§ 41 THIRD DECLENSION. 41 

Obs. Only a very few Latin words have this termination: e.g. cassis 
helmet ; l but it belongs to various Greek words, which have been 
adopted in Latin: e.g. pyramis, pyramid: tyrannis, tyranny; and 
several names of men and women. Ibis, ibidis, ibis, has in the plural 
ibes, ibium. Tigris, tiger, has in the gen. both tigridis, fern., and 
tigris, masc. and fern. ; in the plur. tigres, tigrium. 

The following in is are to be separately noticed: the masculines 
sangvis, blood; pollis, fine flour (not used in the nom.) ; sangvXnis, 
pollinis ; glis, gliris, dormouse ; semis, semissis, half an as : the fenii- 
nines, lis, litis, lawsuit ; vis, force, without a genitive. (See § 55, 2.) 

Obs. The Greek names Salamis, Salamlnis, feminine, and Simois, 
Simoentis (a river), masculine. 

Like lis are declined the proper name Dis, the adjective dis, and the 
national names Qviris and Samnis. 

Nom. os, gen. oris, Masculine ; as, mos, moris, manner. 

Os, oris, the mouth, is neuter. 

Nom. os, gen. otis ; cos, cotis, whetstone, and dos, dowry, are femi- 
nine : rhinoceros is masculine. So also, from their signification, 
nepos, grandson ; sacerdos, priest. 

The following are to be separately noticed : custos, custodis, 
watchman, masc. ; bos, bovis, cattle, common ; 6s, ossis, bone, neuter. 

Nom. us, gen. utis, Feminine ; as, virtus, virtutis, virtue. 
Nom. us, gen. udis, Feminine ; as, palus, paludis, marsh. 

(Like palus are declined incus, anvil, and the following with a 
diphthong: laus, laudis, praise ; fraus, deceit. 2 ) Pecus, a head of cat- 
tle, has pecudis. (See also pecus, pecoris, neut., § 56, 7.) 

Nom. us, gen. eris, Neuter ; as, genus, generis, a hind, race? 
Venus (the goddess so called) is feminine. 

Nom. us, gen. oris, Neuter ; as, corpus, corporis, body. 
Lepus, hare, is masculine. 

Nom. us, gen. uris, Neuter ; as, jus, juris, right, law. 

Mus, mouse, is masculine ; tellus, the earth, feminine. Ligus, a 



1 Capis, promulsis. 

2 Subscus. 

3 Like genus are declined acus, chaff; foedus, funus, glomus, latus, munus, 
olus, onus, opus, pondus, rudus, scelus, sidus, ulcus, vellus, viscus, vul- 
nus. Like corpus are declined decus (dedecus), facinus, fenus, frigus, littus, 
nemus, pecus (see us, gen. udis), pectus, penus (see § 56, 7), pignus, stercus, 
tempus, tergus (commonly tergum, tergi). From pignus we have also pigneris. 
like jus are declined the monosyllables crus, pus, rus, tus. 



42 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 41 

Ligurian, has Liguris. (Lemures, ghosts, occurs only in the plu- 
ral.) 

The following must be separately noticed : sus, sow ; grus, crane ; 
suis, gruis, mostly fern., rarely masc. 1 

Norn, ns, gen. ntis, Masculine ; as, mons, montis, the mountain ; 
dens, dentis, tooth. 

Obs. Some words belonging to this class are properly Participles, with 
which a masculine substantive is understood : as, oriens, east : occi- 
dens, west, — sol being understood. 

The following are feminine : gens, family or race ; lens, lentils ; 
mens, intellect, mind; frons, forehead; bidens, a sheep of two years 
old (bidens, the axe, is masc). Serpens, serp ent (properly a parti- 
ciple), is usually feminine (bestia), rarely masculine (angvis). Ani- 
mans, a living being, is feminine, in the plural also neuter (animantia) ; 
signifying a rational being, it is masculine. Continens, the continent, 
is usually feminine (terra), rarely neuter. The rare philosophical 
words ens, the being ; consequens, the conclusion ; accidens, an acci- 
dent (in logic) , are neuter. 

Nom. ns, gen. ndis, Feminine ; as, glans, glandis, acorn. 

Thus, juglans, walnut; frons, foliage; lens, a nit, and masc. libri- 
pens. 

Norn, bs, gen. bis, Feminine ; as, urbs urbis, city. 
Nom. ps (eps), gen. pis (Ipis) : — 

The following are feminine : stirps, stem (in a few cases masculine, 
when it denotes the trunk of a tree) ; and daps, dapis, food : adeps, 
fat ; forceps, a pair of tongs, are masc. and fern. The rest are mascu- 
line. Personal names in ceps: as, princeps, first, chief. Auceps, 
the fowler, has aucupis in the genitive. 

Obs. Greek words in ps, which have been received into the Latin, are 
masculine, and their -inflection is regulated according to the Greek: as, 
hydrops, hydropis, dropsy ; Pelops, Pelopis (a proper name) ; gryps, 
gryphis, griffin. 

Norn, rs, gen. rtis, Feminine ; as, ars, artis, art. 

The following feminines in s, with a consonant preceding, must 
be separately noticed: hiems, hiemis, winter; puis, pultis, broth. 



1 These two words, with strues, struis, the heap; and lues, luis, a contagious dis- 
ease, are the only Latin words of the third declension, the stem of which terminates in a yowel J 
viz. u. 



§ 41 THIRD DECLENSION. . 43 

Nom. t. The only example is caput, capitis, head, Neuter, 
with its compounds occiput and sinciput. 
Nom. ax, gen. acis ; as, pax, pacis, peace. 

The Latin words pax, fornax, oven ; fax, gen. facis, torch, are femi- 
nine. The Greek are masculine; as, thorax, thoracis, breast- plate, 
except the feminine Umax, snail. 

Obs. Greek proper names have also acis: as, Corax, Coracis ; and 
those in anax have anactis : as, Astyanax. 1 

Nom. ix, gen. icis, Feminine ; as, salix, salicis, willow. 
The two following are masculine : calix, cup ; fornix, vault ; varix, 
a vamcose vein, is both masculine and feminine. 

Nom. ix, gen. icis, Feminine ; as, radix, radicis, root. 2 

Phoenix, phoenix (a Greek word), is masculine (also a national 
appellation, — a Phoenician) . 

The following feminines should be separately noticed : nix, nivis, snow ; 
strix, strigis, a fabulous being, in the form of a bird. 

Nom. ox, gen. ocis, Feminine ; as, vox, vocis, voice. 

The only other word declined in this way is celox, a swift vessel. 
The feminine nox, noctis, night, must be separately noticed. 
(The national names Cappadox, Allobrox, have Cappadocis, Al- 
lobrogis.) 

Nom. ux, Feminine ; as, crux, crucis, the cross. 

The genitive is variously formed with c and g, u and u : nux, niicis, 
nut, nut-tree; lux, lucis, light ; conjux, conjugis, wife (as of common 
gender it denotes also a spouse) ; frux, frugis, fruit (not used in the 
nom.) ; faux, faucis, throat (not used in the nom.). 

The following are masculine : tradux, tradiicis, the layer of a vine ; 
and dux, diicis, leader (also common) ; Pollux, Pollucis, proper 
name. 

Nom. x, with a consonant preceding, gen. cis, Feminine; as, 
arx, arcis, citadel. 

The words in unx, denoting the twelfth parts of an as, are masculine : 
deunx, eleven-twelfths of an as ; quincunx, septunx (rarely calx, heel; 
lynx, lynx). 

1 In Greek we find also common names in ax, acis, but scarcely any one of these is met 
with in Latin. 

2 Like salix are declined besides the words cited above ; coxendix, filix (fulix), hys- 
trix, natrix, pix, and the national name Oilix, a Cilician. Like radix are declined several 
words ; viz. cervix, cicatrix, comix, cotumix, lodix, perdix, vibix, and the fem- 
inine appellatives in trix, e.g. victrix. In appendix the quantity is uncertain. 



44 LATIN GRAMMAB. § 41 

Obs. The Greek words Sphinx, the Sphinx; phalanx, a certain order 
of battle ; syrinx, reed, have gis ; e.g. sphingis. 

Nona, ex, gen. icis, Masculine; as, apex, apicis, the extreme 
point. 

The following are feminine : ilex, Tiolly ; carex, sedge ; forfex, a pair 
of shears ; vitex, a species of tree ; and, from its signification, pellex, 
concubine. 

The following are masc. and fern. : imbrex, tile ; obex, bolt (not 
used in the nom. sing.) ; rumex, sorrel ; and in the poets, also : cortex, 
bark; silex, flint. (Atriplex, the or ache, is neuter.) 

The following must be separately noticed : a. The masculines with an 
irregular genitive : grex, gregis, herd ; with aqvilex, a discoverer of 
springs ; and the national name Lelex ; rex, regis, king ; remex, remi- 
gis, rower ; vervex, vervecis, wether ; senex, senis, old man ; foenisex, 
foenisecis, haymaker. 

b. The feminines with an irregular genitive : nex, necis, death; prex, 
precis, prayer (not used in the nom. sing.) ; lex, legis, law ; supellex, 
supellectilis, household goods ; faex, faecis, lees. 

2. Further, there are found in the foreign words which have 
been adopted from the Greek and other languages different forms 
of the stem and of the nominative, which do not occur in words 
originally Latin. (A more copious notice of the Greek words must 
be sought for in the Greek dictionary.) The endings referred to 
are, — 

Nom. ma, gen. matis, Neuter ; as, poema, poematis, poem. 

Nom. i, gen. is, Neuter ; as, sinapi, sinapis, mustard. 

Obs. In this way are declined in the sing., without a plural, some 
names of foreign products, and those of a few Spanish towns ; as, 
Illiturgi. Most of them are not used in the gen. ; the other cases 
all end in i. Sinapi has also the fern, form sinapis (nom.). 
Oxymeli, oxymelitis, a mixture of vinegar and honey, is neuter 
(pelt) ; so also one or two others in meli. 

Nom. y, gen. yis (yos), neuter: as, misy, misyis (contr. misys), 
vitriol (?) 

There are very few words of this class : misy is also found indeclina- 
ble ; asty or astu, the city [of Athens], only in the accusative. 

Nom. on, gen. onis, Feminine ; as, Alcyon, Alcyonis, the king- 
fisher. 

(So aedon, nightingale ; sindon, muslin ; with some names of towns : 
e.g. Anthedon, Anthedonis ; Chalcedon.) 

Canon, rule, or plummet, is masculine ; also, names of men ; as, 
Ixion, &c. 



§ 41 THIRD DECLENSION. 45 

Nom. on, on, an, en, in, ) __ 

~ - . - ;. - ! j! - ! f- Masculine. 

Gen. onis, ontis, anis, ems, mis, > 

Greek proper names, of which the names of towns are feminine : as, 
Babylon, Babylonis ; Ctesiphon, Ctesiphontis ; and Eleusin. (Del- 
phin, Delphinis, dolphin, also delphinus,. delphini.) 

(Of the nom. of names in on, see § 45.) 

Nom. ter, gen. teris, Masculine ; as, crater, crateris, bowl. 
Nom. as, gen. adis, Feminine ; as, lampas, lampadis, torch. 

(The national names Nomas and Areas, employed also as feminine 
adjectives.) 

Nom. as, gen. antis, Masculine ; as, adamas, adamantis, dia- 
mond. 

Melas, Melanis, masc, the name of a man, a river, and a disease. 

Nom. as, gen. atis, Neuter; as, erysipelas, erysipelatis, the 
complaint so called. 

(Very few instances, commonly only in the nom. and ace.) 

Nom. es, gen. etis, Masculine ; as, lebes, lebetis, caldron. 
(So magnes, magnet; tapes, carpet; Tunes, the city Tunis.) 

Nom. es, Neuter ; as, cacoethes, a malignant tumor. 
Nom. 6s, Neuter ; as, epos, an epic poem. 

(Both of these occur in but very few words, and only in the nom. and 
ace.) 

Nom. os, gen. Sis, Masculine; as, heros, herois, hero, demi- 
god. 

Nom. us, gen. untis, Masculine ; as, Pessinus, Pessinuntis (a 

town). 

(Only geographical names are thus declined. The names of towns 
are sometimes used as feminine by synesis ; e.g. Amathus in Ovid.) 

Nom. us, gen. odis, Masculine ; as, tripus, tripodis, tripod. 

(None but compounds of novg. Oedipus generally, and polypus, 
polypus, always follow the second declension.) 

Nom. ys, gen. yis, Feminine ; as, chelys, chelyis, cithara. 
(Mostly proper names. Othrys, the mountain Othrys, is masculine.) 



46 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 42 

Nom. ys, gen. ydis, Feminine ; as, chlamys, chlamydis, cloak. 

Norn, yx, gen. ycis, ycis, ygis, ygis, ychis, Masculine; as 
calyx, calycis, the cup of a flower. 

The genitives follow the Greek. In Greek, many words in yx are 
feminine ; of those which have -been received into the Latin, onlysandyx, 
sandy cis, a kind of red color ; and occasionally bombyx, bombycis, 
the silkworm ; sardonyx, sardonychis, a precious stone. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PECULIARITIES OF THE SEVERAL CASES AND OF THE GREEK 
FORMS IN THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

§ 42. 1. In some words in is (gen. is), the accusative singular 
ends in im instead of em : namely, in amussis, ruler ; buris, 
plough-tail; cucumis, cucumber ; ravis, hoarseness; sitis, thirst; 
tussis, cough ; vis, force ; and in the names of towns and rivers : 
e.g. Hispalis, Tiberis; commonly, too, in febris, fever; pelvis, 
basin ; puppis, the hinder part of a ship ; restis, rope ; turris, 
tower ; securis, axe ; more rarely in clavis, key ; messis, harvest ; 
navis, ship. 

Obs. The accusative also ends in im (or in the Greek form in), in 
many Greek words in is. See § 45, 2 b ; and in the names of the rivers 
Arar and Tiger. 

2. The genitive of Greek and foreign proper names in es (parisyl- 
lables ; see § 40, c, Obs. 1) often ends in the earlier period (e.g. 
in Cicero) in i instead of is ; e.g. 1 Aristoteli, Isocrati, Neocli, 
Achilli, Ulixi. (But this never happens in those words of which 
the stem has been altered in the nominative ; e.g. Laches, 
Lachetis.) 

3. The ablative commonly ends in e, but in some words in i ; in 
some, both in e and i. 

The following have i : — 

a. Those words which have only im in the accusative ; e.g. siti, Tiberi 
(poesi, see 1, Obs.). 

1 [Begnum Alyattei (Hor. iii. Od. 16, 14.)] 



§43 THIRD DECLENSION. 47 

b. All neuter words in e, i, al, ar, gen. aris ; as, mari, sinapi, animali, 
calcari (but sale, masc., andnectare, farre). 

Obs. But the names of towns in e have e in the abl. : e.g. Prae- 
neste, Caere; so likewise mostly rete, and mare frequently in the 
poets. 

c. The adjectives of two and three terminations (is, e, and er, is, e) : 
as, facilis, abl. facili ; acer, abl. acri, with those substantives in is, which 
were originally adjectives ; e.g. familiari, natali. 

Obs. 1. Such substantives, even if they be no longer in use as adjec- 
tives, are recognized by their adjective endings (alis, aris, ilis, ensis, 
&c). 

Obs. 2. But some such substantives often — (as, aedile, from aedilis) 
or, at least, occasionally ; proper names of this kind almost always — have 
e; as, Juvenale. Adjectives formed from the names of towns (e.g. Ve- 
liensis, from Velia) have also sometimes e, other adjectives only in some 
particular passages of the poets. 

The following have both e and i : — 

a. Those words which have both im and em in the accusative ; e.g. 
puppi and puppe. (But restis always has reste, and securis, se- 
curi.) 

b. Adjectives and participles of one termination ; e.g. prudenti and 
prudente, inerti and inerte. I is, however, the prevailing form : e.g. 
prudenti, ingenti, felici, vecordi, Arpinati, except in ablatives absolute 
(see § 277), when e is always used : e.g. Tarquinio regnante ; or, when 
adjectives in ens stand for substantives : e.g. a sapiente, in omni ani- 
mante. 

Obs. The following adjectives, however, have e only : compos, im- 
pos, coelebs, deses, pauper, princeps, pubes (puberis) , superstes, 
and almost always ales, dives ; commonly, too, vetus, uber. Par l and 
memor, on the contrary, always have i. 

c. The comparatives of adjectives : e.g. majore, majori ; e, however, 
is the more usual termination. 

d. Sometimes, too, the ablative in i is used in other substantives in s. 
gen. is (parisyllables) , besides those above-named: e.g. igni, avi; like- 
wise in some which have another termination ; as, imbri (imber), supel- 
lectili (supellex), ruri, in the country (rus) ; and in some names of 
towns, to denote the place in which: e.g. Carthagini, in Carthage; Ti- 
buri, Anxuri. 2 

§ 43. 1. The nominative and accusative plural of neuter words 
generally end in a; but the substantives in e, al, ar (aris), and 

1 The substantive par has also pare. (Imp are numero, Virg.) 

2 In the antiquated style even parti, carni. 



48 LATIN GRAMMAR. §44 

adjectives and participles in the positive (not in the comparative), 
have ia ; e.g. animalia, calcaria, elegantia, inertia, animantia. 
Vetus only has Vetera. 

Obs. Several adjectives of one termination, which follow the third 
declension, form no neuter in the plural. See § 60, c. 

2. Those masculines and feminines, which end in ium in the gen. plur. 
(see § 44), had, in the accusative, in the older period, besides es, the ter- 
mination is, which was long the usual one ; e.g. classis, omnis. (It was 
also written classeis, omneis.) But this pronunciation and orthography 
were not without exceptions. At a later period, they disappeared; but 
the more ancient orthography is still found here and there in the editions 
of Latin authors. 

§ 44. 1. In some words the gen. plur. is formed by affixing ium 
to the stem instead of UHl ; viz. : — 

a. In the parisyllables in es and is (§ 40, 1, c) ; e.g. aedium, cri- 
nium ; except ambages, a circuit (of which the ablative alone is used in 
the sing.) ; strues, heap ; vates, canis, juvenis, which have urn (am- 
bagum, canum) ; with volucris, bird (properly an adjective) , which 
most usually has urn; and apis, bee; sedes, seat; mensis, month, which 
often have that termination. 

b. In the several words imber, linter, venter, uter, a leather bottle, 
Insuber (a national name), and caro (carnis) ; e.g. imbrium, car- 
nium. 

c. In the monosyllables in s or x, preceded by a consonant: e.g. 
mons, montium ; arx, arcium (except opum, from ops, unused in the 
nom.) ; and in the several monosyllables as, glis, lis, mas, mus, os, gen. 
ossis, vis (vires, virium) , faux (not used in the nom. sing.), nix (nives, 
nivium), nox, and sometimes fraus (also fraudum). 

Obs. 1. The Greek words gryps, lynx, sphynx, have um. 

Obs. 2. Some monosyllables do not occur in the gen. plur., though 
the remaining cases of the plural are in use ; of these* the following 
may be especially noticed : cor, cos, rus, sal, sol, vas, gen. vadis. 

d. In words of more than one syllable in ns and rs: e.g. clientium, 
cohortium, from cliens, client; cohors, cohort; but sometimes, particu- 
larly in the poets, these words have um (par elites, parentum, a form 
also common in prose). 

e. In neuter words in e, al, ar (gen. aris), and in those adjectives and 
participles which have a neuter plural : e.g. marium, animalium, calca- 
rium, from mare, animal, calcar ; acrium, facilium, felicium, elegan- 
tium, inertium, 1 locupletium, from acer, facilis, felix, elegans, iners, 

1 Facilium according to rule a ; also, elegantium and inertium, according to d. 



§ 45 THIRD DECLENSION. 49 

locuples, except the adjective vetus (veterum), and qvadrupes, versi- 
color (anceps, praeceps), which have urn. 

From the adjectives in ns, we find, now and then, urn, instead of ium : 
e.g. sapientum; from those in is, very seldom, and only in the poets: 
e.g. caelestum, from caelestis. 

Obs. But if the adjectives have no neuter plural (§ 60, c), the geni- 
tive ends in um ; consequently, we have inopum, divitum, uberum, vigi- 
lum, from inops, dives, uber, vigil. Celer, hebes, teres, are not found 
in the gen. plur. Celeres, the body-guard of the Roman kings, has in 
the gen. celerum. 

f. In national names in is and as : e.g. from Qviris, Qviritium ; from 
Arpinas, Arpinatium; and in the two plural words, penates, the guar- 
dian gods; and optimates, the nobles (rarely um). Other words 
also in as, atis, sometimes have ium ; e.g. civitatium (but civitatum 
is better). 

2. The names of some Roman festivals, which end in alia, and are used 
only in the plural, have, in the genitive, iorum (as in the second declen- 
sion) as well as ium; e.g. Bacchanalia, Bacchanaliorum, the feast of 
Bacchus. So also the word ancile, a shield, which fell from heaven (an- 
ciliorum). 

3. The dative and ablative plural of Greek words in ma generally have 
the termination is, for ibus; e.g. poematis, from poema. 

4. The word bos, bovis, has, in the gen. plur., bourn; in the dat. 
and abl., bobus, or bubus; in the nom. and ace, the regular form, 
boves. Sus has, in the dat. and abl. plur., suibus, and (contracted) 
subus. 

§ 45. (Greek forms in Greek words.) 1. Greek proper names in 
cor, gen. ojvog (onis), and ovog (onis), the Latin form o : e.g. Plato, 
Zeno, Dio, Laco, Agamemno ; but on is retained in some writers (as 
Cornelius Xepos) : e.g. Dion, Conon; and almost always in geographical 
names : e.g. Babylon, Lacedaemon. Those in cov, ovxog, and corzro& 
(ontis), for the most part, retain the n ; Xenophon. (In Plautus 
and Terence, however, some names of this kind are altered in the 
inflection ; e.g. Antipho, Antiphonis, instead of Antiphon Antiphon- 
tis.) 

2. a. In the poets, and some prose-writers, the accusative occasionally 
ends in a, when the Greek has this termination ; but, in prose, this is con- 
fined, with a few exceptions, to proper names ; e.g. Agamemnona, Baby- 
lona, Periclea (Pericles), Troezena, Pana, and, in the poets, heroa, 
thoraca. Only the words aer and aether have, in prose, too, almost 
always aer a, aether a. 

b. Greek words in is, gen. is, have, in the accusative, im (Latin), and 
in (Greek) ; e.g. poesim, poesin, Charybdim, Charybdin. Of the 



50 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 45 

words in is, idis, those which, in Greek, have iv and 18a in the accus., 
have, for the most part, im (in), in Latin, rarely idem (Greek ida) : 
e.g. Paris, Parim, Parin, rarely Paridem ; except those in tis, which 
have both forms : e.g. Phthiotis, Phthiotim (Phthiotin),and Phthioti- 
dem (Phthiotida). 

Those which, in Greek, have only ida (i.e. all oxytones), have, in 
Latin, also idem (ida) ; e.g. tyrannis, tyrannidem (tyrannida). (So 
especially feminine patronymics and national names ; e.g. Aeneis, 
Aeneidem, and Aeneida.) 

c. Words in ys, gen. yis, have, in the ace, ym (Latin), or yn (Greek) ; 
e.g. Othrym, Othryn. 

d. Those proper names in es, gen. is, which in Greek follow the first 
declension (§ 35, Obs. 4), have en as well as em : e.g. Aeschinen, Mith- 
ridaten; so also sometimes those which, in Greek, follow the third decl., 
but have, in the ace, both r] (according to the third decl.) and rjv 
(according to the first) : e.g. Xenocraten. (Others but rarely ; as 
Sophoclen, instead of Sophoclem.) 

e. Proper names in es, etis, are like Thales, which has, in the ace, 
besides Thaletem, a shorter form, Thalem, Thalen (abl., Thale; in the 
gen. and dat., this shorter form, Thalis, Thali, is unusual). 

3. In the genitive of Greek words, the poets use, not unfrequently, 
the form os, but particularly in words in is and as, gen. idos and ados 
(especially in proper names) : e.g. Thetis, Thetidos ; Pallas, Pallados ; 
in those in ys, gen. yos: e.g. Tethys, Tethyos; and in proper names 
in eus, gen. eos: e.g. Peleus, Peleos (Latin, Peleus, Pelei. See 
§ 38, 3.) 

The gen. seos, from words in sis, — e.g. poeseos, from poesis, — is 
not found in good writers. 

Greek names of women, in o, as Io, Sappho, have mostly the Greek 
genitive us (ovg). In the ace, dat., and abl., o is used; e.g. Sappho 
(ace ^a7iq)03, dat. JLartcpoi), rarely the Latin form Sapphonem, Sap- 
phoni, Sapphone. 

4. The Greek words in is, ys, and eus, have the Greek vocative, which 
is formed by the rejection of s: e.g. Phylli, Alexi, Coty, Orpheu; but 
those in is, idos, have often too (in Latin) the voc. like the nom. : e.g. 
Thais. Names of men in as, antis (the voc. in Greek being av and a), 
have a ; e.g. Calchas, voc. Calcha. 

Proper names in es have es and e; e.g. Carneades and Carneade, 
Chremes and Chreme (from Chremes, Chremetis). 

5. In the nom. plur. of Greek words, the poets often use es (eg) 
short, instead of making the final syllable long, as is usual in Latin words 
(§ 20, 2). In the name Sardis (gen. Sardium), is stands for the Greek 
eig. 



§46 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 



51 



6. The accusative plural sometimes ends in as, as in Greek, especially 
in the poets ; e.g. Aethiopas, Pyramidas. This termination is also 
used in some barbarous national names which, in their form, resemble 
Greek words ; e.g. Allobrogas, Lingonas, from Allobrox, Lingon. 

7. The Greek ending of the gen. on is used only in the titles of books : 
e.g. Metamorphoseon libri. 1 

8. The termination of the dative in si (sin) is very rarely used, by a 
few poets, from feminine words in as and is ; e.g. Troasin, Charisin, from 
Troades, Charites. 

9. From the few Greek neuter words in os and es, there are formed a 
nom. and ace. plur. in e (?/), without any further inflection; e.g. melos, 
mele. (Tempe, § 51, g.) 



CHAPTER YII. 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 



§ 46. Words of the fourth declension end in us or (neut.) u, 
and are declined as follows : — 

(fructus, fruit; cornu, the horn.') 



SING. 



PLUR. 



SING. 



PLUR. 



NOM. 


fruct us 


fruct us 


cornu 


corn ua 


Voc. 


fruct us 


fruct us 


cornu 


corn ua 


Ace. 


fruct urn 


fruct us 


cornu 


corn ua 


Gen. 


fruct us 


fruct uum 


corn us 


corn uum 


Dat. 


fruct ui 


fruct ibus 


cornu 


corn ibus 


Abl. 


fruct u 


fruct ibus 


cornu 


corn ibus 



Obs. 1. Like cornu are declined only a few words (genu, knee ; veru, 
spit) . Some cases of other words are formed according to this example ; 
but the word has, at the same time, other forms ; as, from pecu, cat- 
tle, nom. and ace. plur. pecua, and dat. pecubus ; but otherwise, pecus, 
peciidis, and pecus, pecoris, after the third declension. (See amongst 
the abundantia, § 56, 7.) Gelu, cold, is, in ordinary language, used 
only in the ablative. (In other cases, we find the form — not a common 
one — gelum, geli. The nom. gelu belongs to the later Latin, and gelus 
is obsolete.) 



1 Maleon, Ma?,Le£)v, the McUeans (Curt.). 



52 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 47 

Obs. 2. The ending us, in the gen. sing., is contracted from uis, 
which sometimes occurs in the older language ; e.g. anuis, of an old 
woman. From some words, — especially senatus, the senate; and tu- 
multus, the stir, — some writers (e.g. Sallust) form the gen. ini; e.g. 
senati, tumulti. 1 

Obs. 3. In the dative, ui is often contracted into u; e.g. eqvitatu 
for eqvitatui, as in cornu. 

Obs. 4. In the dative and ablative plur., dissyllables, with c before 
the ending (acus, needle; arcus, bow; lacus, lake; qvercus, oak; 
specus, cave, and pecu) ; with the words artus, joint ; partus, birth ; 
tribus, tribe; and veru, spit, — have ubus, instead of ibus; e.g. artii- 
bus. Portus, haven, has portibus and portubus. 

Obs. 5. The names of some trees in us, — especially cupressus, 
cypress; ficus, jig-tree; laurus, the laurel; and pinus, the pine, — are 
sometimes declined throughout like the second declension : sometimes they 
take those cases of the fourth declension which end in us and u; e.g. 
gen. laurus, abl. lauru, nom. and ace. plur. laurus. (Qvercus is 
declined entirely according to the fourth declension.) So also the word 
colus, distaff. 

Domus, house, forms some cases exclusively according to the second 
declension ; while, in others, it has both forms, as follows : — - 



sing. 



Nom. 


domus 






dom us 


Voc. 


dom us 






dom us 


Ace. 


dom um 






dom os (rarely dom us) 


Gen. 


dom us 






dom uum, dom orum 


Dat. 


dom ui (rarely 


dom 


o) 


dom ibus 


Abl. 


dom o (rarely 


domu) 


dom ibus 



The genitive form domi is used only in the signification at home. See 
§ 296, b. 2 

§ 47. Gender. Words of the fourth declension, in us, are mas- 
culine, those in U neuter. But of those in us the following are 
feminine : the names of trees ; as, qvercus : with acus, coins, domus ; 
maims, hand; penus, a store of provisions (see § 56, 7) ; porti- 
CUS, portico ; tribus, tribe: and the plurals idus (iduum), the thir- 
teenth or fifteenth day of every month ; and qyinqyatrus, a certain 

1 It is not correct to assume that the words in u had u also in the genitive. Only cornu 
bubulum, cow's horn, and cornu cervinum, stag's horn, were inflected, in later times, 
as if the suhstantive and adjective made only one word ; comububuli, cornucervini. 

2 By some written also domui, on the authority of manuscripts. 



§ 49 FIFTH DECLENSION. 53 

feast : in the older language also specus (also, from their signifi- 
cation, anus, old woman ; nurus, daughter-in-law ; socrus, mother- 
in-law). 

Obs. Colus is also found in the masculine, specus (in the nom. and 
ace.) in the neuter, — both but rarely. 



CHAPTER Yin. 



FIFTH DECLENSION. 



§ 48. This declension comprises only a few words, which all end 
in es, and are declined as follows : — 

(res, the thing ; dies, the day.) 



PLUR. SING. PLUR. 



NOM. 


re s 


re s 


die s 


die s 


Voc. 


re s 


re s 


die s 


dies 


Ace. 


re m 


re s 


die m 


die s 


Gen. 


re i 


re rum 


diei 


die rum 


Dat. 


re i 


re bus 


diei 


die bus 


Abl. 


re 


re bus 


die 


die bus 



Obs. 1. In the gen. and dat. singular, the e in ei is long after a vowel, 
short after a consonant. In the earlier period, the contracted termina- 
tion e was also used in these cases (e.g. fide, acie, die, for fidei, aciei, 
diei, in the gen. in Horace, Caesar, Sallust ; fide, in the dat., in Horace). 1 
In the genitive, there occurred also an old form in i ; e.g. pernicii, for 
perniciei. 

Obs. 2. Only res and dies are declined throughout in the plural. The 
words acies, facies, effigies, species, and spes (in Virgil, glacies), are 
used in the nom. and ace. plur., — not in the other cases. The remain- 
ing words have no plural. 

Obs. 3. Some words have a double form, according to the fifth declen- 
sion, and according to the first with the nom. in a: see among the abun- 
dantia, § 56, 3. 

§ 49. All words of the fifth declension are feminine ; except 
dies, which is masculine and feminine in the singular, in the plural 

1 [Constantis juvenem fide (Hor. Od. iii. 7, 4) ; Libra die somnique pares ubi 
fecerit horas (Virg. Georg. i. 208).] 



54 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 50 

only masculine. In the singular too, with the signification day, it 
is usually masculine in good prose-writers ; but, with the significa- 
tion term, time (longa dies), it is almost always feminine (in prose 
always). (Meridies, mid-day, is masculine.) 



CHAPTER IX. 

OF SOME PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE NUMBERS OF 
SUBSTANTIVES, AND OF SOME IRREGULARITIES IN THEIR 
INFLECTION. 

§ 50. Peculiarities relating to the Numbers. Many words 
in Latin (as in our own language) are used only in the singular ; 
* because they are either proper names of definite individual objects 
(e.g. Roma ; also, tellus, humus, the earth in general, — terrae, 
plural, means lands) ; or because they denote an idea in its general 
or abstract sense, and in its absolute meaning, without reference to 
the particular objects in which it appears in the concrete. Such 
are the names of the qualities, properties, and condition and cir- 
cumstances of a being; as, justitia, justice; senectus, old age; 
fames, hunger ; scientia, knowledge ; indoles, natural gifts: names 
used in a collective sense ; as, plebs, valgus, the common people ; 
supellex, household furniture : names of a material ; as, aurum, 
gold; triticum, wheat ; sanguis, blood; virus, venom. 

If such words as usually designate a whole alter their significa- 
tion, and are used to denote individual objects, they have also the 
plural : e.g. aera, instruments of copper, bronze statues ; cerae, wax 
tablets, ivax masks ; ligna, pieces of wood, billets. 

Obs. 1. Such changes of the signification must be ascertained by atten- 
tive reading, and from the dictionary. Thus, mors, death, is used in the 
plural, of cases of death, kinds of death; while letum, death, is never so 
employed. In this, the poets go further than the prose-writers ; e.g. tria 
tura, three grains of incense, from tus, incense. Sometimes, the poets 
employ names expressive of abstract ideas, and names of classes or mate- 
rials, in the plural, without a change in the signification (as of a whole, 
consisting of several parts) : e.g. silentia, silence; murmura, murmur- 
ing ; flamina, blowing; hordea, barley ; but chiefly only in the nom. and 



§ 51 IRREGULARITIES OF DECLENSION. 55 

ace. Thus, the poets sometimes used ora, pectora, corda, of a single 
individual. 

Obs. 2. The Latin word may sometimes have originally a more ab- 
stract signification than the English which most nearly corresponds to it, 
and therefore be without a plural ; as, specimen, a proof. (Various hor- 
ticultural productions, — as fruit and flowers, — as well as the different 
species of corn, are, in Latin, named in the singular, when it is intended to 
designate the whole kind, or an indefinite quantity ; e.g. abstinere faba, 
mille modii fabae (Hor. Ep. I. 16, 55), beans in general: but fabae, 
beans taken separately ; glande vesci (Cic. Or. 9), in rosa jacere. This 

applies also sometimes to other kinds of produce. 
i 
Obs. 3. The Latins, unlike ourselves, often used the names of abstract 

ideas in the plural, when the idea (an activity, property, condition, being) 
is to be conceived as applying to several persons or things (several sub- 
jects) , or when it is intended to denote that the idea is exhibited several 
times, and in a variety of forms. So, when the mind or mood of several 
persons is spoken of, animi is used (animos militum incendere, animi 
hominum terrentur) ; and we find (in Cicero) , adventus imperatorum, 
exitus bellorum mites, odia hominum, novorum hominum indus- 
triae, proceritates arborum, invidiae multitudinis, iracundiae, 
timores, tarditates, celeritates, tres constantiae (three kinds of 
constantia), omnes avaritiae (all the ways in which avarice displays 
itself) . l So, of the weather, we find the expressions, nives, snow-storms ; 
grandines, hail-storms ; soles, bursts of sunshine (in the poets, days) ; 
frigora, cold seasons. 2 

Obs. 4. Proper names are used in the plural, not only when borne by 
several individuals (e.g. Valerii omnes, duo Scipiones Africani), but 
also figuratively of men of a certain kind ; e.g. multi Cicerones (many 
orators as distinguished as Cicero). 

Obs. 5. In some historians and poets, certain words, which denote a 
man of a particular class or rank, are sometimes used in the singular of 
the whole class : e.g. Romanus, for the Romans : eqves, for the knights; 
miles, for the soldiers. 

§ 51. Some words are used only in the plural (pluralia tantum), 
because they either designate several individual things, which are 
so named only in the aggregate, and not when taken separately : 
e.g. majores, ancestors; or because they are used of something 
which originally suggested the idea of several constituent parts, or 



1 Rectiqve cultus pectora roborant (Hor.). Tantaene animis coelestibus 
irae? (Virg.) 

2 Siccitates paludum (Cees. B. G. iv. 38). 



56 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 51 

the idea of repetition, or the like : e.g. arma, gen. armorum, ar- 
mor ; fides, gen. fidium, the cithara. 1 

Obs. Of such words, the following are most usual : — 

a. Liberi, children; majores, ancestors (properly the comparative of 
magnus, great) ; proceres and primores, men of rank; inferi, the in- 
habitants of the lower world; superi, the inhabitants of the upper world ; 
caelites, the inhabitants of heaven; penates, household gods ; manes, the 
spirits of the departed; munia (only in the nom. and ace), employ- 
ments ; utensilia, utensils, provisions; verbera, stripes (verbere, see 
§55,3). 

b. Parts of the Body: artus, the limbs ; cani (adj., with which ca- 
pilli is to be understood), gray hairs ; cervices, the neck (in the later 
writers, cervix) ; exta, intestina, viscera (rarely viscus), the intes- 
tines ; fauces, the throat (fauce, see § 55, 3) ; praecordia, the dia- 
phragm; ilia, the flank; renes, the kidneys. 

c. Materials, Compound Objects: altaria, the altar; arma, armor; 
armamenta, tackling; balneae, bath-house (balneum, a private, single 
bath, plur. balnea); cancelli, lattice; casses, a fowler's net; castra, 
camp (castrum, as the name of a place ; e.g. Castrum Novum) ; 
clathri, a grating; clitellae, pack-saddle; compedes, fetters (com- 
pede, see § 55, 3) ; cunae, cunabula, incunabula, cradle; exuviae, 
an integument stripped off (arms taken in fight) ; fides, lyre (fidem, 
fidis, fide, see § 55, 2) ; fori, rows of seats ; loculi, a repository (with 
several compartments) ; lustra, a lurking-place of ivild beasts ; manu- 
biae, booty ; moenia (moenium) , the wall of a town ; obices, a bolt 
(obice, see § 55, 3) ; phalerae, the ornaments of horses ; salinae, salt- 
works ; scalae, stairs ; scopae, broom ; sentes, thorn-bush ; spolia, spoils ; 
valvae, folding-doors ; vepres, brambles (veprem, vepre, see § 55, 2) ; 
virgulta, the thicket : and, generally, bigae, a carriage with two horses ; 
qvadrigae, a carriage ivith four horses; and the participles sata, the 
cornfields; serta, garlands of flowers. 

d. Ambages, a round about way (§ 55, 3) ; argutiae, witty, ingeni- 
ous discourse; crepundia, playthings ; deliciae, delight; dirae, a curse 
(from the adj. dirus) ; divitiae, riches; excubiae, the guard; exse- 
qviae, funeral solemnities; epulae, banquet (sing, epulum, generally 
a public entertainment) ; fasti, calendar ; grates, thanks (only in the 

1 Majores denotes all the individual ancestors, but only as taken together ; a single an- 
cestor is not called major. The same holds good with liberi. In these cases, therefore, we 
think of the individuals which make up the number ; and three children is expressed by tres 
liberi. Fides, on the other hand, denotes the compound stringed instrument, but not its 
several parts (the strings are called nervi); arma is a suit of armor, which consists of sev- 
eral pieces. We think, therefore, in these expressions of the compound unity, and trina 
arma (according to § 76, c) signifies three suits of armor. Most of the pluralia tantum 
belong to this latter description. 



§ 52 IRREGULARITIES OF DECLENSION. 57 

nom. and ace); induciae, an armistice; ineptiae, silliness (rarely in 
the sing.); inferiae, a sacrifice to the dead; insidiae, ambuscade'; in 
imicitiae, enmity (but amicitia) ; minae, threatening ; nugae, non- 
sense; nuptiae, a marriage; praestigiae, a blind, deception; preces, 
supplication (prece, see § 55, 3) ; primitiae, first-fruits ; reliqviae, 
remains : sordes, dirt (sordeni, sorde, see § 55, 2) ; tenebrae, dark- 
ness ; vindiciae, a judicial process ; so also usually angustiae, a strait 
(embarrassment) ; blanditiae, flattery ; illecebrae, enticement. 

e. Names of Days and Festivals : Calendae, the first day of the 
month; Nonae, the fifth (or seventh) ; Idus, thirteenth (or fifteenth); 
feriae, holiday ; nundmae, market-day ; Bacchanalia, the feast of Bac- 
chus ; Saturnalia, the feast of Saturn ; and other names of festivals, in 
alia and ilia. 

f The names of many towns ; e.g. Veji, Athenae, Leuctra, Grades. 
Of those in i, some designate both the town and its inhabitants ; e.g. Del- 
phi, Leontini. 

g. The mountain chains Alpes and Acroceraunia, and the valley of 
Tempe (§ 45, 9). The poets use some Greek names of mountains as 
neuter in the plural, instead of masculine in the singular ; as, Taygeta, 
for Taygetus. 

§ 52. Some words, which in the singular are employed to denote 
a single object or idea, are used in the plural to express not only 
a number of such objects, but also (as pluralia tantum) a more 
complex object which bears some affinity to them, or a collection of 
objects: e.g. littera, a letter of the alphabet; litterae, either letters 
or an epistle ; auxililim, aid ; auxilia, resources or auxiliary troops. 
(Binae litterae, tivo epistles ; bina auxilia, two bodies of auxilia- 
ries. See § 76, c. We also find litterae sometimes without a nu- 
meral to signify epistles ; e.g. afferuntur ex Asia qyotidie litterae, 
Cic. pro. leg. Man. 2.) 

Obs. Further instances of such words are : — 

SINGULAR . PLURAL . 

aedes, the temple. aedes, a. temple; b. a house. 

aqva, icater. aqvae, a. icaters ; b. a 'medicinal 

spring. 

career, the prison. carceres, the space partitioned off 

by the barriers (on the race- 
course) . 

codicillus (rare) , a small log. codicilli, the writing -tablet, the 

note. 

copia, fulness, a store, a number. copiae, a. stores; b. troops. 



58 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§54 



PLURAL. 

comitia, an assembly of the 'peo- 
ple. 
fortunae, the goods of fortune. 
gratiae, thanks. 

horti, a. gardens; b. pleasure- 
gardens, a country-house. 

impedimenta, a. hindrances; b. 
baggage. 

ludi, a public spectacle. 

nares, the nose (rarely in the sing, 
in this signification) . 

natales, pedigree. 

opes, power, riches. 

partes, a. parts ; b. the part (of 
an actor in a play) , side, party. 

rostra, the platform for the orators 
in the market at Rome (adorned 
with beaks of ships) . 

tabulae, a. boards, &c; b. an 
account-book, a document. 1 

§ 53. In some compound words, which consist of two entire un- 
altered words in the nominative, and may be again resolved into 
their constituent parts (spurious compounds), both parts of the 
compound are declined : e.g. respublica, the state, ace. rempubli- 
cam, gen. reipublicae, &c. (according to the fifth and first decl.) ; 
jusjurandum, the oath, gen. jurisjurandi, &c. (according to the 
third and second). 

§ 54. Some few substantives are indeclinable : namely, the Latin 
and Greek names of the letters (a, alpha, &c.) ; the words fas, 
right; nefas, wrong ; instar, equality (in size and signification) ; 
mane, the early morning; caepe, onion; gummi, gum; but 
these words, with the exception of the letters, are used only as 
nominatives and accusatives. Mane, however, is also used as an 
ablative (summo mane, at the earliest dawn). 

Obs. 1. The names of the letters are also used as genitives, datives, 
or ablatives, when the addition of an adjective (e.g. y Graecae), or the 
connection, clearly shows the case. 



SINGULAR. 

comitium, a place in the market in 

Borne. 
for tuna, fortune. 
gratia, thankfulness (in action and 

in feeling) . 
hortus, garden. 

impedimentum, hindrance. 

Indus, play, a jest. 
naris, nostril. 

natalis (adj. dies), birthday. 
ops (not used in the nom.), help. 
pars, part . 

rostrum, beak, the beak of a 
ship. 

tabula, board, tablet. 



i Animi, spirit {haughtiness), and spiritus, haughtiness, pride; used also of a single 
individual. 



§ 55 IRREGULARITIES OF DECLENSION. 59 

Obs. 2. For gummi, writers also use gummis, gen. gummis, fern., and 
gumen, neuter : for caepe, often caepa, gen. caepae. 

Obs. 3. Pondo is also indeclinable, being used sometimes as an abl. 
sing., signifying in weight: e.g. coronam auream, libram pondo (a 
pound in weight ; iceighing a pound) ; sometimes as a plural noun in the 
nom., ace., and gen. : e.g. qvinqvagena pondo data consulibus; tor- 
qves aureus, duo pondo (by apposition) ; corona aurea pondo du- 
centum (ducentorum). 

Obs. 4. Barbarous names — the Hebrew, for instance (in Christian 
authors) — often receive a Latin termination, in order to make declension 
practicable, either in the nom. — e.g. Abrahamus — or in the other 
cases only, the foreign form being used for the nom. ; e.g. David, gen. 
Davidis. The name Jesus has, in the ace, Jesum; in the other cases, 
Jesu. 

§ 55. Some words have an inflection of the cases, but not through- 
out (defectiva casibus, deficient in their cases) . 

Obs. According to the number of the cases in use, such words are called 
monoptota, diptota, triptota, or tetraptota, — words with one, two, 
three, or four cases. 1 The cause of this incompleteness is found in the 
meaning or the use of the word, which made only certain cases neces- 
sary, or retained no others in use. 

1. The following words want the nom. : (daps, obsolete), dapis, 
food; (dicio), dicionis, dominion; (frux), frugis, fruit; (inter- 
necio), internecionis, destruction ; (pollis), pollinis, ^me flour. 

2. The following words are used in the sing, only in certain 
cases : — 

fors, accident, in the nom. and abl. (forte, usually as an adverb, acci- 
dentally), without a plural. 

(fides, or fidis, unused, lyre), in the ace, gen., and abl., fidem, 
fidis, fide. Used only by the poets ; commonly fides, fidium, as a plur. 
tantum. 

(impes, unused, violence), in the gen. and abl. impetis, impete. 
(Without plural. Usually impetus, after the fourth declension.) 

lues, an epidemical disease, in the nom., ace, and abl., luem, lue. (No 
plural.) 

(ops, unused, help), in the ace, gen., and abl., opem, opis, ope. In 
the plural, — opes, opum, power, riches, — it is declined throughout. See 
§52. 

(sordes, unused, dirt), in the ace and abl., sordem, sorde; both rare. 
Usually, sordes, sordium, as plur. tantum. 

1 From TTTUGig, case, with the Greek numerals. 



60 LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§55 



(vepres, unused, bramble), in the ace. and abl., veprem, vepre; 
both rare. Commonly plur. tant., vepres, veprium. 

(vicis, or vix, unused, change), in the ace., gen., and abl., vicem, 
vicis, vice. In the plural, vices, vicibus ; the gen. is wanting. 

vis, force, in the nom., ace., and abl., vim, vi. In the plural, vires, 
virium, the powers, complete. 1 

3. The following when used in the singular are used in the abla- 
tive only : ambage, compede, fauee, obice, prece, verbere, and all, 
if we except prece and (rarely) verbere, only by the poets ; other- 
wise they are plur alia taiitum, ambages, &c. (§ 51, Obs. ) 2 

4. Sponte, an impulse (fern.), is used in the abl. sing, only (with- 
out a plural) with a possessive pronoun : e.g. sua sponte, of his own 
accord, nostra sponte ; so likewise several verbal substantives in 
ll from supines, which are constructed only with a genitive or a pos- 
sessive pronoun: e.g. jnssu populi, by order of the people; man- 
datu Caesaris, by a commission fro?n Ccesar ; rogatu meo, at my 
request ; together with natu, in respect of age (birth) : e.g. grandis 
natu, advanced in age. (In promptu, in procinctu.) 

5. The following substantives are only used in one particular case, and 
in certain combinations : dicis (dicis causa, for formes sake), nauci (non 
nauci, as gen. of the price, not ivorth a farthing ; non nauci facio, non 
nauci est), derisui (esse, to be a laughing-stock, according to § 249), 
and so also, despicatui and ostentui (esse), infitias (ire, to deny), 
suppetias (ferre, to bring assistance), venum (ire, to be sold ; dare, to 
sell). 3 

Secus, sex, with the adjective virile or muliebre, is used without 
alteration in the ace. in apposition to all cases, signifying of the male or 
female sex; e.g. Liberorum capitum, virile secus, ad decern millia 
capta (Liv. XXVI. 47). (Otherwise, sexus, after the fourth declen- 
sion.) Repetundarum and (de) repetundis (pecuniarum, pecuniis) 
are found only in these cases, when reference is made to judicial proceed- 
ings on account of money raised illegally. 

6. The gen. plur. is wanting in some monosyllables of the third de- 
clension (see § 44, c, Obs. 2) . 

7. The plural grates, some plurals used only by the poets (see § 50, 
Obs. 1) , and the plurals of some monosyllables of the neuter gender (aera, 
jura, rura,farra), are found only in the nom. and ace. ; so, likewise, some 

1 Ace. plur. vis, in Lucretius. 

2 (Ambages, nom. sing., in Tacitus?) ; preci, dat., in Terence ; verberis, gen., in Ovid. 

3 Astu, craftily, as an adverb : in later writers, also, astus, craft, nom. ; and astus, 
nom. and ace. plur. 



§56 



IRREGULARITIES OF DECLENSION. 61 



plural words of the fifth declension (§ 48, Obs. 2), and of the fourth; im- 
petus, spiritus. 

§56. Some words are declined in two or more ways (abundan- 
tia), and of these some vary in gender as well as in the termination 
of the nominative case. In some instances, however, one form is 
used more frequently than the other. 

Obs. Words with various inflections are termed heteroclita ; those 
with various genders, heterogenea. 1 

Particular examples of this have been already mentioned : as, laurus, 
lauri, and laurus, domus, &c. (§ 46, Obs. 5) ; as also the variation 
between Greek and Latin forms : e.g. logice and logica (§ 35, 
Obs. 1). 

To this class belong also the following : — 

1. In the second declension, some words end both in us (masc.) and in 
um (neut.) : as, callus and callum, callosity ; comment arius and coru- 
mentarium, memoir; jugulus and jugulum, throat; some names of 
plants: as, lupinus, lupinum, lupine; porrus, porrum, leek; cubitus, 
elbow; also, cubitum (particularly cubita, ells) ; balteus, belt; bacu- 
lum, stick ; clipeus, shield, — more rarely balteum, baculus, cli- 
peum. 

2. Menda and mendum, fault, varies between the first and second 
declension. Vespera, evening, has also vesper, and ace. vesperum, 
after the second declension ; and, in the ablative, usually vespere, ves- 
per!, after the third. (Vesper, vesperi (2d), the evening-star.) Aranea 
and araneus, spider ; columbus and columba, dove; and some other 
names of animals. See § 30, Obs. 

3. Some words in ia and ies vary between the first and fifth declen- 
sion ; e.g. barbaria and barbaries, mollitia, mollities, luxuria, luxu- 
ries. (In the gen., dat., and abl., these words more rarely follow the 
fifth decl.) (The form materies is generally used to denote wood for- 
building, — materia, for matter.) 

4. Some substantives of the fourth declension, derived from verbs, have 
an additional form in um, i; e.g. eventus, eventum, event. So also 
angiportus (4th) and angiportum (2d), a narrow street; suggestus 
(4th) and suggestum (2d), platform; tonitrus (4th) and tonitruum 
(2d), thunder. 

5. The following are to be separately noticed : — 

plebs, plebis (3d), and plebes, plebei (5th), the common people. (Tri- 
buni plebis and plebei, also plebi. See § 48, Obs. 1.) 

1 From £TEpoe, another, and KMGig, inflection, yevoc, gender. 



62 „ LATIN GRAMMAR. § 56 

reqvies, reqvietis, rest; in the ace. and abl., also, reqviem, re- 
qvie (5th). 

gausape, gausapis, and gausapum (2d), neut., a kind of woollen 
stuff; also gausapa (1st), fern. ; and gausapes, gausapis, masc. 

praesepe, praesepis, neut., manger; also, praesepes, praesepis, 
fern, and praesepium (2d) . 

tapes, tapetis, masc., carpet; also, tapete, tapetis, neut., and tape- 
turn, tapeti. 

ilia, flanks (plur. tant.), gen. ilium (3d) and iliorum, dat. and abl. 
ilibus. 

6. Jugerum, jugeri, acre, is declined, in the singular, after the second 
declension ; in the plural, after the third : jugera, jugerum, jugeribus 
(rarely jugeris). 

Vas, vasis, vessel (3d) , follows the second declension in the plural ; 
vasa, vasorum, vasis. 

7. In some words, not only the case-endings, but even the stem 
itself varies ; so that they are, properly, distinct words, not merely differ- 
ent declensions of the same. Of this class are to be noticed, - — 

femur, thigh, femoris and feminis (from the unused nom. femen) ; 
and so the remaining cases. 

jecur, jecoris, liver; in the gen., also, jocinoris, jecinoris, joci- 
neris ; and so the remaining cases. 

juventus, juventutis, youth ; in the poets, juventa (1st), and Juven- 
tas, Juventatis, the goddess of youth. 

Senectus, old age; in the poets, senecta (1st). 

Pecus, peciidis, fern., a head of (small) cattle (the nom. rare) ; 
pecus, pecoris (generally collectively, cattle) ; also, pecua (plur. tan- 
tum), pecubus. 

perms, penoris, plur. penora, a store of provisions ; also, penus, 
penus, fern., and penum, peni, — the last two forms without a plu- 
ral. 

So, also, colluvio (3d) and colluvies (5th), filth washed together, a 
confused mixture ; contagio (3d) and contagium (2d, in the poets and 
later writers) , contact, contagion; scorpio (3d) and scorpius (2d), the 
scorpion; with some others. 

Obs. Some Greek words are partly adopted in their Greek form, partly 
employed in a Latin form, somewhat modified; e.g. crater (3d, masc.) 
and cratera 1 (fern.), elephas (elephantis, 3d) and elephantus (2d), 
tiaras (1st, masc.) and tiara (fern.). Sec § 33, Obs. 3. Of the words 
chaos, chaos; cetos, whale; melos, song (3d, neut.), we find (but 
rarely) the Latin forms chaus (abl. chao),cetus, melus (masc). The 
city of Argos is also named, in Latin, Argi, Argorum (§ 51, f). 

i [Hor. Od. iii. 18, 7.] 



§ 58 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 63 

§ 57. Some few words change wholly or partially in the plural 
the gender which they have in the singular ; as : — 

jocus, jest; plur., joci and joca. 

locus, place; plur., loca, places, in a material signification; loci, 
passages in books, subjects. (Some authors, however, use loci in the sense 
of loca.) 

carbasus, linen (fern.) ; plur., carbasa (sails). 

coelum, heaven ; plur., coeli. 

frenum, bit ; plur., freni and frena. 

rastrum, mattock; plur., rastri and rastra. 

ostrea, oyster ; plur., ostreae, and ostrea, ostreorum. 

sibilus, hissing ; plur., sibili, — poet., sibila. 

Tartarus, hell ; plur., Tartara. (A Greek word, used only in the 
poets.) 

Ojbs. Of balneae and epulae (balneum, epulum), see § 51, 
Obs. c, d. 



CHAPTER X. 

THE INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 

§ 5J8. Adjectives, and likewise participles, are declined by cases ; 
but they are at the same time subject to some variation in form to 
correspond with the gender of the substantive to which they belong. 
Thus those adjectives which in the masculine gender follow the 
second declension, in the feminine add a to the stem throughout, 
and are declined according to the first declension. But those, on 
the other hand, which follow the third declension (of which the 
stem ends in a consonant), are varied only in the formation of the 
nominative and accusative. They thus become adjectives of three, 
of two, or of one termination in the nominative. They are then 
declined like substantives with a similar stem and of the same gen- 
der, as it has been said already, under the declension of substan- 
tives. (Xo adjectives belong to the fourth or fifth declension.) 

1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declension, and 
Three Terminations. Those adjectives which in the masculine 
and neuter gender follow the second declension, end either in US, in 
the neuter in um, and in the feminine in a : e.g. probus, proba, 
probum, honest; or in er, erum (rum), era (ra) : e.g. liber, 



64 LATIN GRAMMAR. §59 

libera, liberum, free; niger, nigra, nigrum, black; one ends 
in ur : satur, satura, saturum, sated} 

Those adjectives in er, which retain e before r in the gen. sing, 
(and have already been enumerated in § 37), retain it also in the 
fem. and neut. : e.g. liber, gen. liberi, libera, liberum ; the others 
omit it : e.g. niger, gen. nigri, nigra, nigrum. 

Obs. 1. In this way, are also varied the participles in us : as, amatus, 
amata, amatum, loved ; amaturus, amatura, amaturum, that will love ; 
and amandus, amanda, amandum, that is to be loved, lovable. 

Obs. 2. Of the irregular gen. and dat. of some adjectives in us, 
we have already spoken, in treating of the second declension (§ 37, 
Obs. 2). 

Obs. 3. The distinction between the two classes of adjectives consists 
only in this, that those in er have not assumed the ending us in the nomin- 
ative (as properus, praeposterus, and triqvetius have done, as well as 
all those with a long e, as severus), and that in some of them an e has 
been inserted in the nominative. Of cetera, ceterum (ace. ceterum, 
ceteram, ceterum, and so on in all genders), and ludicra, ludicrum 
(ace. ludicrum, ludicram, ludicrum, &c), the nom. masc. sing, is not 
in use ; that of posterus rarely occurs. 

§ 59. 2. Adjectives of the Third Declension, and Two or 
Three Terminations. Of the adjectives of the third declension 
some end in is in the nominative of the masculine and feminine 
(with the connecting vowel i inserted between the stem and s, see 
§ 40, 1, c), in the nominative of the neuter in e (with e as an affix, 
see § 40, 2, c) ; e.g. levis, leve, light (abl. levi, neut. plur. levia, 
gen. plur. levium. See § 42-44). The distinction between the 
neuter and the other genders is only marked in the nom. and ace. 
sing, and plur. (levis, leve; levem, leve; leves, levia). 

Thirteen adjectives, the stem of which ends in r, and which are, in all 
other respects, declined like those adduced ending in is, e, have, in the 
nom. sing. masc. gender, er for ris, and therefore in this case three ter- 
minations ; e.g. masc. acer, fem. acris, neut. acre (gen. acris, &c). 
These adjectives are : acer, keen ; alacer, alert ; campester, belonging 
to the field, flat; celeber, much frequented, famous ; celer, swift; eqves- 
ter, belonging to the cavalry or to knighthood ; paluster, marshy ; pe- 
dester, belonging to the infantry ; puter, putrid ; saluber, wholesome ; 
Silvester, belonging to a wood, wooded; terrester, belonging to the earth 

1 It is usual to name the genders in this order, though the masculine and neuter are most 
nearly related in respect of form. 



§ 60 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 65 

or continent ; voliicer, winged: celer alone retains the e in the inflec- 
tion, — fern, celeris, neut. celere, gen. celeris. 

Obs. 1. Sometimes these adjectives end in ris in the masc. also, so that 
they in no respect differ from the others in is: e.g. annus salubris (Cic.) ; 
collis silvestris (Cass.). But this occurs but rarely in most words of 
this class, and chiefly in the poets. 

Obs. 2. To the same form as these adjectives belong the names of the 
months, September, October, November, December, which, in the 
nom. sing., occur only in the masc. (mensis), but are found in the femi- 
nine in such phrases as Kalendae Septembres, &c. (libertate Decem- 
bri, the freedom of December, Hor.). 

Obs. 3. Some few adjectives have both the form in us (a, um) and that 
in is (e) ; viz. hilar us, hilaris, merry, and various adjectives formed bj 
composition from substantives of the first and second decl. : imbecillus 
(imbecillis, rare), weak; imberbus, imberbis, ivithout a beard ; iner- 
mus, inermis, unarmed ; semiermis, semiermus, half -armed; exani- 
mus, exanimis, deprived of life ; semianimus, semianimis, half 
deprived of life ; unanimus, unanimis, unanimous ; bijugus, qvadri- 
jugus, multijugus, and bijugis, &c, with two, four, or many horses ; 
infrenus, infrenis, unbridled. So of acclivis, rising (in the form of 
a hill) ; declivis, inclined downwards ; proclivis, inclined downwards 
(also inclined to any thing, and easy) ; there is found a rare form, ac- 
clivus, &c. 

§ 60. 3. Adjectives of the Third Declension, and One 
Termination, a. The remaining adjectives of the third declension 
have only one termination in the nominative : e.g. sapiens, wise ; 
felix, happy ; gen. sapientis, felicis; so also the participles in ns: 
as, amans, loving ; legens, reading. But the neuter gender is distin- 
guished in the singular by having the ace. the same as the nom. 
(masc. and fern, sapientem, felicem, neut. sapiens, felix), and in 
the nom. and ace. plural by the termination ia (masc. and fern, sapi- 
entes, felices, neut. sapientia, felicia). (Only vetus has vetera, 
see § 43, 1. Ablative sapienti and sapiente, see § 42; genitive 
plural sapientium, see § 44.) 

b. Adjectives of one termination are found in many of the forms 
of the stem and nominative given under the substantives (§ 41, a). 
Those which occur most frequently are : nom. as, gen. atis : e.g. 
Arpinas, Arpinatis, belonging to the city of Arpinum ; ns, ntis : 
e.g. sapiens, sapientis, wise ; ax, acis : e.g. ferax, feracis, fruitful 

The remaining forms are er, gen. eris (viz. degener, pauper, uber) ; 
es, gen. itis (viz. ales, coeles, dives, sospes, superstes) ; es, gtis 

5 



66 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 60 

(hebes, indiges, praepes, teres : the following should be noticed par- 
ticularly : deses and reses, desidis and residis ; locuples, locupletis ; 
pubes, puberis, and impubes, impuberis, which is also declined impu- 
bis, impubis) ; ex, icis (e.g. supplex) ; ix, icis (felix, pernix) ; ox, ocis 
(atrox, ferox, velox ; but praecox, praecocis) ; the several words 
caelebs, caelibis ; cicur, cicuris ; compos and impos, compotis and 
impotis ; dis, ditis ; memor, memoris ; oscen, oscinis ; par, paris 
(dispar, impar) ; trux, triicis ; vetus, veteris ; vigil, vigilis ; with some 
which are formed from substantives of the third declension, and have the 
stem of these substantives : as, concors, concordis, with others from 
cor ; biceps, bicipitis, with others (anceps, praeceps, triceps) from 
caput ; intercus, intercutis, from cutis ; iners, inertis, from ars ; dis- 
color, discoloris, from color ; qvadrupes, qvadrupedis, with others 
from pes, &c. (Exsangvis, however, has exsangvis in the genitive.) 

c. The neuter plural is only formed from those adjectives of one 
termination, which end in ans and ens, in as (rarely), rs, ax, ix, 
and ox, and from the numeral adjectives in plex ; as : 

elegantia, sapientia, Larinatia, sollertia, concordia, tenacia, feli- 
cia, atrocia, simplicia, duplicia (from elegans, elegant ; sapiens, wise ; 
Larinas, belonging to the city of Larinum ; sollers, prudent, ingenious ; 
concors, agreed ; tenax, tenacious, persevering ; felix, happy ; atrox, 
horrible) ; and from the following, to be separately noticed : anceps, 
two-sided ; praeceps, steep ; locuples, rich ; par, equal ; vetus, old ; 
in later writers also from hebes, blunt ; teres, round ; qvadrupes,/bwr- 
footed ; versicolor, of various colors. (Consequently, not, for exam- 
ple, from memor, pauper, supplex, trux, compos, uber, &c.) 

Some adjectives, which otherwise have no neuter in the plural, never- 
theless occur with neuter substantives in the dat. and abl. : e.g. suppli- 
cibus verbis, with suppliant words (Cic.) ; discoloribus signis, icith 
signs of various colors (id.) ; puberibus foliis, with sprouting leaves 
(from pubes, Yirg.). 

Obs. 1. Some few adjectives vary between one and more endings : as, 
opulens, rich, and opulentus, a, um ; violens, violent, and, more fre- 
quently, violentus. Dives, rich, changes with dis (gen. ditis), neut. 
dite ; the neuter plural is ditia, the comp. and superl. both divitior, di- 
vitissimus, and ditior, ditissimus. 

Obs. 2. The substantives derived from verbs (personal names) in tor, 
which form feminines in trix (see § 177, 2), are sometimes connected as 
adjectives with other substantives, especially victor, the conqueror, as 
an adj., victorious, fern, victrix; and ultor, the revenger, as an adj., 
avenging, fern, ultrix; e.g. victor exercitus, ul trices deae. From these 
two, the poets form a neuter plural, victricia (e.g. arma) and ultricia 



§ 62 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 67 

(e.g. tela) ; and in the same way from the substantive hospes, stranger, 
guest, the neuter plural hospita (e.g. aeqvora). 

Obs. 3. Some other appellations of persons are also used by the 
poets and later writers as adjectives (by apposition) : e.g. artifex, artist 
(artifex motus, motion guided by art, Quinct.) ; incola, inhabitant 
(turba incola, crowd of inhabitants, Ovid) ; but very rarely with a 
neuter substantive (ruricola aratrum, the field-titling plough, Ovid). 1 

Obs. 4. Juvenis and senex are poetically used as adjectives (juvenes 
anni, youthful years, Ovid) . Princeps is an adjective (princeps locus, 
principes viri), but most frequently as belonging to a verb ; as, 
Gorgias princeps ausus est, Gorgias first ventured. (See Syntax, 
§ 300, a.) 

Obs. 5. Words are formed in Greek from the names of countries, towns, 
and nations, ending in as (ados) and in is (idos), which are feminine 
national names, and feminine adjectives. These the Latin poets also use 
as feminine adjectives, and form others on the same principle : e.g. Pe- 
lias hasta, the Pelian spear (from Mount Pelion) ; Ausonis ora, the 
Ausonian coast (Ausones) ; Hesperides aqvae, the Hesperian (Italian) 
waters. 

§ 61. Certain forms of some adjectives are not in use, as the nomina- 
tives primor, eminent; seminex, half -dead; sons, guilty (caeterus, ludi- 
crus, § 58, Obs. 3). Exlex, without law; and exspes, xoiihout hope, — 
are found only in the nom. and ace. ; pernox, through the night, in the 
nom. and abl. ; trillcem, of three threads, only in the ace. Pauci, few; 
and generally pleriqve, most (many) , — are used in the plural only, the 
last without a genitive. We find, however, pleraqve nobilitas, juven- 
tus, the greater part of the nobility, of the youth ; plerumqve exercitum 
(ace), and sometimes plerumqve (neut)., signifying the greater part. 
Frugi, good; and neqvam, good for nothing, — are indeclinable in all 
cases. (Homo frugi, hominem frugi, hominis frugi, &c. ; homines 
frugi, &c.) 

Obs. The words opus and necesse (also undeclined) are only used in 
connection with the verb sum : opus est, sunt, it is necessary ; ne- 
cesse est, impers., it is necessary. 

§ 62. Besides the form which is used when a property is simply 
attributed to an object (gradus positivus), adjectives have two 
forms of comparison (gradus comparationis). One is used when, 
in a comparison of two objects, a quality is attributed to one in a 
higher degree than to the other (or than to the same at another 
time), and is called the Comparative degree; e.g. vir probior, a 
more upright man. The other form is employed when a quality is 

1 [populum late regem (Virg.), regina pecunia (Hor.).] 



68 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 64 

attributed to an object in the highest degree, and is named Superla- 
tive degree; e.g. vir probissimus, the most upright man. The 
changing of the adjective from the positive to the other forms is 
called its Comparison. 

The participles in ns (present participle active), and the passive 
participle (perf. part.) in us, are also compared, when they take the 
complete signification of adjectives ; i.e. when they signify a prop- 
erty without reference to time. 

Obs. The participle in urus (future participle active) and the ger- 
undive (in ndus) are never compared. 

§ 63. The comparative is formed by adding to the stem (as it is 
seen in the positive, when the case-ending is removed) the endings 
ior (masc. and fern.) and ius (neut.) ; as : 

probus (prob-us), compar. probior, probius ; liber (ace. liber-um), 
liberior, liberius ; niger (ace. nigr-um), mgrior, nigrius; levis (lev- 
is), levior, levius ; sapiens (ace. sapient-em), sapientior, sapientius ; 
felix (ace. felic-em), felicior, felicius. (Ace. probior em, probius, 
gen. probioris, &c., according to the third declension, abl. probiore, — 
more rarely probiori ; plur., probiores, probiora, gen. probiorum.) 

Obs. From the comparative of some adjectives, there is formed a di- 
minutive in cuius (see § 182, c, Obs.) : e.g. duriusculus (-a, -um) ; 
grandiusculus, longiusculus, majusculus (from major), plusculus, 
sometimes to show a slight preponderance : e.g. Thais qvam ego sum 
grandiuscula est, a little older ; sometimes to diminish the force of the 
positive : e.g. duriusculum est, it is somewhat hard. 

§ 64. The superlative generally ends in isslmus (a, um), which 
is added to the stem in the same way as the ending of the compara- 
tive; e.g. probissimus, levissimus, sapientissimus, felicissimus. 

In adjectives that end in er in the nom. masc. (both of the second and 
third declension), the r of the nom. is doubled, and the ending imus 
affixed : e.g. liber, liberrimus ; niger, nigerrimus ; acer, acerrimus ; 
celer, celerrimus. On the same principle, are formed veterrimus from 
vetus (gen. veter-is), and prosperrimus from prosperus. Maturus, 
ripe, has maturissimus and maturrimus (especially the adverb matur- 
rime). 

The adjectives facilis, easy ; difficilis, difficult ; gracilis, slender, 
thin ; humilis, low ; similis, like ; dissimilis, unlike, — form the super- 
lative, after removing the ending, by doubling the 1, and adding imus ; 
facillimus, difficillimus, gracillimus, &c. (From imbecillis, weak, is 
formed imbecillimus, but from imbecillus, imbecillissimus. (See 
above, § 59, Obs. 3.) 



§ 66 INFLECTION OP ADJECTIVES. 69 

Obs. 1. The remaining adjectives in ilis have the usual form; e.g. 
utilis, utilissimus ; but many want the superlative. (See below.) 

Obs. 2. We may remark the antiquated orthography probissumus, 
nigerrumus, &c, for probissimus, nigerrimus. (See § 5, a, Obs. 5.) 

§ 65. Some adjectives vary from the regular comparison. 
1. Adjectives in dicus, f Icus, volus, derived from the verbs dico, 
facio, volo: e.g. maledicus, slanderous; munificus, liberal; ben- 
evolus, well-wishing, — form the comparative in entior, the superla- 
tive in entissimus (as if from participles in ens) ; maledicentior, 
munificentior, benevolentior, maledicentissimus, munificentissi- 
mus, benevolentissimus. 1 

Obs. Egenus, needy; and providus, provident, — take, for their 
degrees of comparison, those of the participles egens and providens ; 
as, egentior, egentissimus. 

2. The following adjectives form their degrees of comparison 
either with some change of the stem, as it exists in the positive, 
or from an entirely different stem ; sometimes, too, with variations 
in the ending. 

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

bonus, good. melior, melius optimus 

malus, bad. pejor, pejus pessimus 

magnus, great. major, majus mazimus 

multus, much. plus 2 (neut.) plurimus 

parvus, little. minor, minus minimus 

neqvam, 3 good for nothing, neqvior neqvissimus 

frugi, 3 frugal. frugalior frugalissimus 

From senex, juvenis, are formed the comparatives senior, junior, 
without a superlative. 

Obs. Multus, in prose, signifies much ; as, multus sudor, multa 
cura. In the poets, it denotes, in the sing., many a; e.g. multa ta- 
bella, multa victima. Pluris is used only as a genitive of the price 
(Syntax, § 294). Pluria for plura is rare and archaic. From plures 
come complures, complura (rarely compluria), gen. complurium. 

§ 66. a. Some adjectives which denote the relation of time or 
place which one object bears to another, are commonly used only 

1 Mirificissimus from mirificus, in Terence. 

2 In the singular only the neut. plus, more ; nom. and ace, with the genitive pluris, in the 
plur. ; plures, plura, several; plurium, pluribus. 

3 Indeclinable in the positive. 



70 LATIN GRAMMAR. §66 

in the comparative and superlative. The positive is either not used 
at all (but only a corresponding preposition or adverb), or only in 
certain particular combinations, or with a peculiar meaning. The 
superlative in these adjectives has an irregular, and in some a dou- 
ble form. 

(citra, prep.) citerior, on this side, citimus, hither most. 

(exteri, in the plur. exterior, outer. extremus, the utmost 

only; extra, prep.) (rarely extimus). 

Obs. Exteri, strangers, foreigners ; also, exterae nationes, extera 
regna, &c. 

(inferum, plur. inferi ; inferior, lower. infimus or imus, lowest, 
prep, infra.) undermost. 

Obs. Inferum is commonly used only in the combination mare in- 
ferum, the sea below Italy, southward of Italy ; inferi, the inhabitants of 
the infernal regions ; infera flumina, inferae partes, the rivers of the 
lower world, the subterraneous parts of the world. 

(intra, prep.) interior, inner. intimus, most inward. 

(prope, prep.) propior, nearer. proximus, nearest. 

Obs. Propinqvus is used for the positive. Its comparative, propin- 
qvior, is rare. 

(posterus, prep, post.) posterior, later, hinder. postrSmus, the last. 

Obs. Posterus (not used in the nom. masc.) signifies the following , the 
next (in order of time) ; e.g. posterum diem, postera nocte, in the 
poets postera aetas, and so on. Posteri, posterity. The superlative 
form postumus is found, in good writers, only in the signification last- 
born, born after (after the father's death), films postumus. (Anterior 
from ante, is found only in later writers.) 

(superum, plur. superi ; superior, upper, supremus, the extreme, 
prep, supra.) - last (in point of time). 

summus, the highest. 

Obs. Superum is usually found only in the expression mare superum, 
the sea north of Italy (the Adriatic) ; superi, the gods above ; supera, the 
upper parts of the world. (Rarely as an adjective, res superae, belong- 
ing to the upper world, limen superum.) 

(ultra, prep.) ulterior, on the other ultimus, the last, 

side, further. 
prior, the first, former, primus, first. (See 

§74.) 



§ 67 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 71 

b. The following comparatives and superlatives also want the 
. . / 
positive : — 

deterior, worse. deterrimus 

ocior, swifter. ocissimus 

potior, preferable. potissimus 

Obs. 1. satius, better, more advisable (from adverb satis), is only used 
in the neuter with est (impersonally) . 

Obs. 2. (Seqvior) seqvius, of less account, less good, is rare as an 
adjective ; adverb, secius. 

§ 67. Many adjectives have no forms for the comparative and 
superlative, because they only show that an object does or does not 
belong to a strictly limited class, so that it is impossible or difficult 
to conceive a difference of degree : e.g. aureus, golden ; and all 
those which designate a material : Graecus, Greek ; pedester, belong- 
ing to the infantry ; aestivus, belonging to the summer ; hesternus, 
of yesterday ; and others which denote a certain period of time: 
vivus, living ; sospes, uninjured ; merus, mere, pure; memor, re- 
membering. Other adjectives have no comparative or superlative, 
because, from the form of the adjective, these would want euphony. 
On account of one or other of these impediments, the following 
adjectives have commonly no forms of comparison. 

a. Those which have the termination us preceded by a vowel : e.g. 
idoneus, convenient ; dubius, doubtful (but tenuis, thin, tenuior, tenu- 
issimus). * 

Obs. Those in uus, however, are sometimes used in the superlative : 
assiduissimus, strenuissimus (from assiduus, persevering ; strenuus, 
vigorous), more rarely in the comparative, as assiduior. Of those in 
ius, there occur the comparative egregior, from egregius, distinguished, 
with some others ; and the superlatives egregiissimus and piissimus, from 
pius, pious, but not in the better writers. 

b. Most of those which are compounded of verbs or substantives : e.g. 
those in fer and ger, from fero, gero ; ignivomus, vomiting fire (vomo); 
degener, degenerate (genus) ; discolor, of various coloi^s (color) ; 
inops, poor (ops) ; magnanimus, noble-minded (animus). We must, 
however, except those in dicus, ficus, volus, from dico, facio, volo, of 
which several (not all) are compared (see § 65, 1), and those from ars, 
mens, cor: as, iners, sollers, demens, concors, discors, vecors (rarely 
misericors). 

c. Most of those which are manifestly derivatives (from Latin words 
in use) with the terminations icus, alis or aris, His, iilus, timus, inus, 
Ivus, orus (e.g. civicus, naturalis, hostilis, qverulus, legitimus, pere- 



72 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 68 

grinus, furtivus, decorus), with those derived from substantives with 
the terminations atus and ltus (e.g. barbatus, bearded). 

Obs. Some exceptions, however, occur, partly in the comparative and 
superlative : e.g. hospitalis, hospitable ; liberalis, liberal ; divinus, 
godlike, divine (liberalior, liberalissimus, &c), partly in the compara- 
tive alone : as, rusticus, rural, rustic ; aeqvalis, equal, uniform ; capi- 
talis, fatal, capital ; popularis, favorable to the people; regalis, royal ; 
salutaris, wholesome; civllis, civil; tempestivus, seasonable (aeqvalior, 
&c). 

d. To these are to be added some particular words, which cannot be 
referred to any general rule : e.g. ferus, wild ; gnarus, knowing ; minis, 
wonderful; navus, active; rudis, raw, unpolished ; trux, harsh (while 
verus, clarus, dirus, with the same form, have the degrees of compari- 
son ; serus, late, on the other hand, rarely.) 

Obs. 1. Of adjectives with certain terminations, especially ldus, many 
remain without comparison (e.g. trepidus, apprehensive), while others 
are compared (e.g. callidus, sly ; candidus, white, &c). In some adjec- 
tives, it may be simply accident that the forms of comparison occur in no 
old writer. 

Obs. 2. The words dexter, right ; and sinister, left, express already 
in the positive a relation to some other object ; and the comparative is 
consequently superfluous. Yet some writers have used dexterior and 
sinisterior in the signification of the positive, and even the superlative 
dextimus (Sail.). 

§>68. a. The following adjectives have no comparative in use, 
while the superlative occurs : falsus, false ; inclitus, renowned ; 
novus, new (novissimus, the last) ; sacer, holy ; vetus, old (veter- 
rimus ; on the other hand vetustus, vetustior, vetustissimus). 

Obs. Several participles are also used in the superlative without a com- 
parative ; e.g. meritus, and, compounded with in, invictus, uncon- 
quered, invincible. (But doctus, learned, doctior, doctissimus ; 
indoctus, indoctior, indoctissimus, &c.) 

b. Many adjectives in His (bilis), which are derived from verbs, 
have the comparative, but not the superlative : e.g. agilis, active ; 
docilis, teachable ; credibilis, credible ; probabilis, allowable, proba- 
ble ; also the following : ater, black ; coecus, blind; jejunus, fasting ; 
longinqvus, distant; proclivis, leaning doionwards ; propinqvus, 
near (see under propior, § 66, a) ; surdus, deaf; teres, round; 
and some others. (Adolescentior from adolescens, young ; com- 
monly a substantive, the youth.) 



§ 70 THE NUMERALS. 78 

Obs. Others in ilis (bilis) are compared throughout; e.g. ama- 
bilis, fragilis, fertilis (fero), nobilis (nosco), ignobilis, mobilis, 
utilis. (Subtilis and vilis are not derived from verbs.) 

c. When a comparison is required, and the forms of the compara- 
tive and superlative are not in use, magis, more, and maxime, 
most, are prefixed to the adjective ; e.g. magis mirus, maxime 
(summe, in the highest degree) mirus. Otherwise, this circumlocu- 
tion is generally used only by the poets. 

Obs. With a view to heighten the signification, per is prefixed to many 
adjectives, and by all writers ; e.g. percommodus, very convenient. 
Those with prae — e.g. praegelidus, very cold — are found more in the 
poets and later prose. Adjectives, which have their signification enhanced 
in this way, are not compared. Only praeclarus, illustrious, is com- 
pared as a simple word, and used by all writers. 



CHAPTER XT. 



THE NUMERAL; 



§ 69. Those numerals which are used only to count and to ex- 
press a given number are called Cardinal numbers : those derived 
from them, which express the number of an object and its place in 
the series, — e.g. tertius, the third, — are called Ordinals. Besides 
these two kinds, there are in Latin numbers expressing division or 
repetition (Distributives) which express a number as thought of 
several times (one for each object or case) ; e.g. seni, six each, 
six at a time. 

§70. The names of the cardinal numbers are as follows : with 
them are given the Latin numerical signs. 

I unus, una, unum. X decern. 

II duo, duae, duo. XI undecim. 

III tres, tria. XII duodecim. 

IV qvattuor, XIII tredecim or decern et tres 
Y qvinqve. (tres et decim). 

VI sex. XIV qvattuordecim 

VII septem. XV qvindecim. 

VIII octo. XVI sedecim (sexdecim, decern 
Villi or IX novem. et sex). 



74 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§70 



XVII decern et septem or sep- 
temdecim (septem et decern). 

XVIII duodeviginti (properly 2 
from 20, or 20 minus 2) or (more 
rarely) decern et octo. 

XIX undeviginti or (more rarely) 
decern et novem. 

XX viginti. 

XXI unus (a, um) et viginti or 
viginti unus (a, um). 

XXII duo (duae) et viginti or 
viginti duo (duae), and so on; 
e.g. : 

XXY qvinqve et viginti or vi- 
ginti qvinqve. 

XXVIII duodetriginta or (more 
rarely) octo et viginti or viginti 
octo. 

XXIX undetriginta or (more 
rarely) novem et viginti or 
viginti novem. 

XXX triginta, and so on, as with 
viginti; e.g. : 

XXXIX undeqvadraginta or 
(more rarely) novem et tri- 
ginta or triginta novem. 

XL quadraginta. 

L qvinqvaginta. 

LX sexaginta. 

LXX septuaginta. 



LXXX octoginta. 

XC nonaginta. 

XCVIII nonaginta octo, octo et 

nonaginta. 
XCIX or IC nonaginta novem 

novem et nonaginta, undecen- 

tum. 
C centum. 
CI centum et unus, or centum 

unus. 
CII centum et duo, centum duo, 

&c. ; e.g. : 
CXXIV centum et viginti qvat- 

tuor, centum viginti qvattuor. 
CC ducenti, ae, a. 
CCC trecenti, ae, a. 
CCCC qvadringenti, ae, a. 
ID or D qvingenti, ae, a. 
DC sexcenti, ae, a. 1 
DCC septingenti, ae, a. 
DCCC octingenti, ae, a. 
DC CCC nongenti, ae, a. 
CIO or M mille. 
CIOCIO or MM duo millia, &c. 
100 qvinqve millia. 
I00CI0CI0 or IOMM septem 

millia. 
CCI00 decern millia. 
100 qvinqvaginta millia. 
CCCI000 centum millia. 






Obs. 1. The pronominal words (see § 93) tot, so many ; qvot, lioio 
many? and toti&em, just so many, — have a signification corresponding 
with these numbers. (The numeral adjectives multi, pauci, omnes, 
nulli, nonnulli, pleriqve, are also allied to them in signification.) 

Obs. 2. The Latin numeral signs, with the exception of M (an abbre- 
viation of mille), were originally not letters, but arbitrary signs, which 
subsequently received the form of letters. A stroke (I) with a (in- 
verted) is 500 ; and every additional corresponds to a cipher in our fig- 
ures ; therefore, 100 = 5,000, I00O == 50,000. The number is doubled 
when as many C's are put before the stroke as there stand O's after it ; 

1 Sexcenti is used of an indefinite large number ; as, a hundred, a thousand, in English. 
[So trecenti in Horace: Amatorem trecentae Pirithoum cohibent catenae 
(Od. iii. 4, 79.)] 



§ 72 THE NUMERALS. 75 

therefore, CIO = 1,000, 00100 = 10,000, CCCI000 = 100,000. In 
more modern Latin books, our (Arabic) numerals are sometimes made 
use of. 

§ 71. The numerals under mille are adjectives : the three first 
are declined ; the numbers from qvattuor to decern, those which 
end in decim, and the tens (viginti, triginta, &c.) with centum, 
are undeclined : so also undeviginti, duodeviginti, and the others, 
which are formed in the same way (by subtraction). Ducenti and 
the following hundreds are declined like the plural of adjectives 
in us. 

Unus, una, unum, has, in the gen., in all genders, umus; in the dat., 
uni (see § 37, Obs. 2) ; but is otherwise regularly declined after the 
second and first declension. It has also a plural, — uni, unae, una, 
— in the signification alone, of one kind, with plural substantives. Uni 
Svevi, the Suevi alone ; unis moribus vivere (Cic. pro Flacc. 26), 
to live with manners unchanged. Uni, alteri, the one party, the other. 
Of unae litterae, see § 76, c, Obs.) 

Duo is thus declined : — 



MASC. 


AND NEUT. 


FEM. 


NOM. 


duo 


duae 


Acc. 


duo (masc. also duos) 


duas 


Gen. 


duorum 


duarum 


Dat. 


duobus 


duabus 


Abl. 


duobus 


duabus 



In the same way is declined the word ambo, ambae, ambo, both 
(e.g. acc. masc, ambo or ambos). The gen. of duo has also the 
form duum, especially duum millium. (See § 34, Obs. 3 ; § 37, 
Obs. 4.) 

Tres is declined according to the third declension, thus : — 



MASC. 


FEM. 


NEUT 


Notf. 


tres 


tres 


tria 


Acc. 


tres 


tres 


tria 


Gen. 


trium 


trium 




Dat. 


tribus 


tribus 




Abl. 


tribus 


tribus 





§ 72. a. Mille is usually an indeclinable adjective ; e.g. mille 
homines, mille hominum, mille hominibus. Sometimes, however, 
it is used as a substantive in the sing., and is followed by the name 
of the objects enumerated in the gen. ; e.g. ea civitas mille misit 
militum (Corn. Milt. 5), but then usually only in the nom. or acc. 



76 LATIN GRAMMAR. §73 

Obs. 1. When mille stands as a nom. in the way last mentioned, i.e. as 
a substantive with the gen. following, it is, notwithstanding, usually fol- 
lowed by a verb in the plural : mille passuum erant inter urbem cas- 
traqve (Liv. XXIII. 44). Such a phrase as ibi mille hominum 
occiditur is antiquated. 

Obs. 2. Mille seldom occurs as a substantive in any other case 
than the nom. and ace, and then only in connection with millia in 
the same case : cum octo millibus peditum, mille eqvitum (Liv. 
XXI. 61). 

b. From mille comes the plural millia (milia), thousands, a 
substantive (gen. millium, dat. abl. millibus), to which the smaller 
numerals are prefixed ; tria, sex, viginti, centum millia, with the 
gen. of the objects enumerated (see § 285, a) ; e.g. sex millia 
peditum, duo millia eqvitum. 

Obs. 1. When smaller (adjective) numerals follow millia, the name 
of the objects enumerated, provided it comes afterwards, is put in the 
same case as millia (not in the genitive) : e.g. Caesi sunt tria millia 
trecenti milites; Caesar cepit duo millia trecentos sex Gallos. 
But if the name of the objects enumerated comes first, it is usually put 
in the genitive governed by millia; e.g. Caesar Gallorum duo millia 
qvingentos sex cepit. Sometimes, however : Gallos cepit duo mil- 
lia qvingentos sex. (Omnes eqvites, XV millia numero, conve- 
nire jubet, in apposition. Cses. B. G. VII. 64.) 

Obs. 2. Bis mille, ter mille, instead of duo millia, tria millia, is 
poetical. 

§ 73. From the examples in § 70, it is seen that, in compounding the 
numbers that fall between the tens from 20 up to 100, either the ten ivith- 
out et, or the smaller number ivitli et, is placed first (viginti unus,'unus 
et viginti; viginti et unus is rare). For 28, 29, 38, 39, &c, the 
expressions formed by subtraction are the most usual (duodetriginta, 
undetriginta). The hundreds (in prose) are always placed before the 
tens, with or without et, and then the tens before the .units ; e.g. cen- 
tum et sexaginta sex or centum sexaginta sex. (Deviations from 
this are rare.) 

A million is denoted, in Latin, by the expression. 10 times 100,000; 
decies centum millia or (with the distributive numeral, see § 76, b) 
decies centena millia, and so on, above a million ; undecies, duode- 
cies centum or centena millia (1,100,000, 1,200,000), vicies, tricies 
centum millia (2,000,000, 3,000,000), vicies qvinqvies centena mil- 
lia (2,500,000). To these, the single thousands are added, in the follow- 
ing way : decies centena millia triginta sex millia centum nonaginta 
sex (1,036, 196). 



§74 



THE NUMERALS. 



77 



2 
3 

4 
5 

6 
7 



§ 74. The Ordinals are all adjectives in us, a, urn, and are regu- 
larly declined. Their names are : — 

28 duodetricesimus, more rare- 
ly, octavus et vicesimus, 
vicesinius octavus. 

29 undetricesimus, more rarely, 
nonus et vicesimus, vi- 
cesimus nonus. 

30 tricesimus (trigesimus). 

31 primus et tricesimus, tri- 
cesimus primus, or unus- 
ettricesimus, &c, as in 21. 

38 duodeqvadragesimus, more 
rarely octavus et tricesi- 
mus, tricesimus octavus. 

39 undeqvadragesimus, more 
rarely, nonus et tricesi- 
mus, tricesimus nonus. 

40 qvadragesimus. 
50 qvinqvagesimus, 
60 sexagesimus. 
70 septuagesimus. 
80 octogesimus. 
90 nonagesimus. 

100 centesimus. 

101 centesimus primus. 
110 centesimus decimus. 
124 centesimus vicesimus qvar- 

tus, etc. 

200 ducentesimus. 

300 trecentesimus. 

400 qvadringentesimus. 

500 qvingentesimus. 

600 sexcentesimus. 

700 septingentesimus. 

800 octingentesimus. 

900 nongentesimus. 
1,000 millesimus. 
2,000 bis millesimus, and so on 
with adverbs ; e.g. : 



1 primus, first (of two, prior, 
which is a comparative. See 
§66, a). 

secundus or alter. 

tertius. 

qvartus. 

qvintus. 

sextos. 

septimus. 

8 octavus. 

9 nonus. 

10 decimus. 

11 undecimus. 

12 duodecimus. 

13 tertius decimus (rarely, deci- 

mus et tertius, &c). 

14 qvartus decimus. 

15 qvintus decimus. 

16 sextus decimus. 

17 septimus decimus. 

18 duo de vicesimus (more rarely, 

octavus decimus). 

19 undevicesimus (more rarely, 

nonus decimus). 

20 vicesimus (vigesimus). 

21 unusetvicesimus (unaetvi- 

cesima, unumetvicesi- 
mum), more rarely, primus 
et vicesimus, vicesimus 
primus. 

22 alter (rarely, secundus) et 

vicesimus, vicesimus al- 
ter, or duoetvicesimus 
(duoetvicesima, duoetvi- 
cesimum). 

23 tertius et vicesimus, vicesi- 

mus tertius. 

24 qvartus et vicesimus, vicesi- 

mus qvartus, and so on. 



10,000 decies millesimus. 
Obs. 1. Deviations in the composition of the intermediate numbers 
from 20 to 100 (e.g. primus vicesimus without et, or vicesimus et 



78 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



75 



primus with et) are unfrequent. Unus in unusetvicesimus, &c., is 
declinable ; but we find also, in the feminine, the abbreviated form 
unetvicesima, with un invariable. Duo in duoetvicesimus, &c, is 
undeclined. 

Obs. 2. To these numbers belongs the interrogative qvotus, 1 which in 
the series ? every third, every fourth, &c, are expressed by tertius qvis- 
qve, qvartus qvisqve, &c, with the pronoun qvisqve ; but every other 
{every second) is usually expressed by the adjective alternus, with the 
substantive in the plural; e.g. (abl.) alternis diebus, every other day. 
Qvotus qvisqve hoc facit properly signifies, which in the series every 
time does this? (e.g. is it every seventh person, every eighth? &c). It 
also signifies, how many do it, pray? (always in a disparaging sense). 

Obs. 3. The number of years is expressed, in Latin, by annus, with 
an ordinal number : annus millesimus octingentesimus qvadragesi- 
mus octavus. 



§ 75. The distributive (repetitive) numerals are adjectives of 
three terminations, following the first and second declension in the 
plural. (In the gen. they often have um instead of orum. See 
§ 37, Obs. 4.) They are as follows : — 



1 singuli, ae, a, one each, one 

each time. 

2 bini, ae, a. 

3 terni (trini). 

4 qvaterni. 

5 qvini. 

6 seni, 

7 septeni. 

8 octoni. 

9 noveni. 

10 deni. 

11 undeni. 

12 duodeni. . 

13 terni deni. 

14 qvaterni deni, and so on. 

18 octoni deni or duodevi- 

ceni. 

19 noveni deni or undevi- 

ceni. 

20 viceni. 

21 viceni singuli. 



22 viceni bini, &c. 

30 triceni. 

40 qvadrageni. 

50 qvinqvageni. 

60 sexageni. 

70 septuageni. 

80 octogeni. 

90 nonageni. 
100 centeni. 
200 duceni. 
300 treceni. 
400 qvadringeni. 
500 qvingeni. 
600 sexceni. 
700 septingeni. 
800 octingeni. 
900 nongeni. 
1,000 singula inillia (or only 

millia). 
2,000 bina millia. 
10,000 dena millia. 



1 [Qvotus annus (Hor.).] 



§77 



THE NUMERALS. 7^ 



Obs. To these numerals corresponds the interrogative qvoteni, how 
many J or each? how many each time? 

§ 76. The distributives are employed, — 

a. When it is denoted that a certain number (or something in a cer- 
tain number) is repeated for each of the persons or things mentioned or 
thought of: e.g. Caesar et Ariovistus denos comites ad colloqvium 
adduxerunt, brought each ten attendants ; agri septena jugera plebi 
divisa sunt, seven acres to each citizen ; pueri senum septenumve de- 
num annorum, of sixteen or seventeen years (each of that age) ; turres 
in centenos vicenos pedes attollebantur ; ambulare bina millia 
passuum (every day, or each time). Tritici modius erat (was worth, 
stood at) sestertiis ternis (Cic. Yer. III. 81). Singuli homines, 
singuli cives, each several man (the men each for himself) , each single 
citizen. 

Obs. If, in expressing a distribution, singuli, each, be added, the 
number may be either a distributive or a cardinal ; e.g. pro tritici mo- 
diis singulis ternos denarios exegit (Cic.) ; singulis denarii tre- 
centi imperabantur (Id.) . Instead of singula millia, the word millia 
is sometimes used alone ; so also asses for singuli asses (an as 
each) ; and some other words, which denote a specific measure, 
weight, &c. 

b. When a multiplication is to be expressed; e.g. bis bina, twice 
two, ter no venae virgines, decies centena millia. (But also decies 
centum millia, and particularly in the poets bis qvinqve viri, ter cen- 
tum, &c.) 

c. With those plural substantives (substantiva pluralia tantum) 
which denote a whole, which can be repeated and counted as such : e.g. 
castra, a camp ; bina castra, two camps ; litterae, a letter ; qvinae lit- 
terae, ^tfe letters, (On the contrary, tres liberi, three children, because 
they are counted as individuals.) 

Obs. In such instances, uni is employed, not singuli (§ 71) : e.g. 
unae litterae, one letter; una castra, one camp. We also usually meet 
with the form trini, for terni, 3. 

d. Sometimes with reference to objects, which are reckoned in pairs : 
e.g. bini scyphi, a pair of goblets (belonging together, Cic.) ; and not 
very rarely in the poets, with precisely the same meaning as the cardi- 
nals : e.g. bina hastilia, two spear-shafts (Virg.). 

Obs. The poets sometimes use the singular of the distributives to 
express a complex object : as, binum corpus, a double body (Lucr.) ; 
septeno gurgite, with seven-fold flood (Lucan) , of the Nile. 

§ 77. From some numbers are formed adjectives of one termination 
in plex (from plicare, to fold), to denote the multiplication defined by 
the numeral: viz., simplex, simple; duplex, double; triplex, triple; 



80 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 79 

qvadruplex, qvincuplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex. They 
are called adjectiva multiplicativa, and regularly declined. 

Obs. 1. Some words in plus (simplus, duplus, triplus, qvadruplus 
[septuplus], octuplus), are commonly used only in the neuter, to de- 
note a magnitude, so many times greater than another magnitude. (Du- 
plum, the double of something else ; duplex, twice as great as something 
else, or twice as great as itself doubled.) 

Obs. 2. On the numeral adverbs, see the rules for the formation of 
words, § 199. 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE PRONOUNS. 

§ 78. The Latin pronouns (properly so called) are distributed, 
according to the manner in which they denote an object, into six 
classes; viz., the personal, the demonstrative, the reflective, the 
relative, the interrogative, the indefinite. To these may be added 
some adjectives derived from pronouns, and termed pronominal 
adjectives. 

Most pronouns have different terminations for the genders of the ob- 
jects signified, and may be combined with them like adjectives (hie vir, 
haec femina, hoc signum). 

§ 79. The Personal pronouns denote the speaker himself (in the 
plural the speaker and those in whose name he speaks), and the 
person or persons spoken to. They have no distinction of gender, 
and are not combined with a substantive, inasmuch as they contain 
in themselves all the definition required. They are declined in the 
following manner : — 

FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom. ego, I tu, thou (so also Yoc.) 

Ace. me, me te, thee 

Dat. mini, to me tibi, to thee 

Abl. me te 

PLURAL. 

Nom. Ace. nos, we, us vos, you (so also Voc.) 

Gen. (occasionally) nostrum vestrum 

Dat. Abl. nobis vobis 



§ 81 THE PRONOUNS. 81 

Obs. 1. Instead of the genitive of these pronouns, the derivative ad- 
jectives (possessive pronouns) meus and tuus, noster and vester (see 
§ 92), are sometimes made use of, sometimes the genitive neuter of these 
adjectives, mei (of my being), tui, nostri, vestri ; nostrum and ves- 
trum are only used in certain combinations : on this, see § 297. 

Obs. 2. To all cases of these pronouns, except tu, nostrum, and ves- 
trum, may be affixed the syllable met, which gives prominence to that 
person in comparison with others (I myself) ; frequently, ipse is also 
added ; e.g. temetipsum. From tu, are formed tute and tutemet, with 
the same signification. 

Obs. 3. For mini, the poets often use mi (contracted) ; tete is some- 
times found for te, in the most ancient style. Tu and vos are the only 
vocatives of pronouns. 

§ 80. The Demonstrative pronouns point to some definite object 
(or give it prominence). They are hie, this here, this; iste, that 
there (with you) ; ille, yon, that there ; is, that (which has been 
already mentioned, or is now defined by the addition of which), he 
{she, it) ; idem, the same ; ipse, self; to which may be also added, 
alius, another ; and alter, the other (when two are spoken of). 

Obs. Hie, iste, ille, may be called direct demonstratives ; is, an indi- 
rect demonstrative; idem and ipse, emphatic demonstratives. Alius 
and alter denote the opposite of something defined ; but alter has also 
an indefinite signification, the one (of two). 

§ 81. The demonstratives are declined as follows: — 
1. Hie. 





singular. 






MASC. 


FEM. 


NEUT. 


Nom. 


hie 


haec 


hoc 


Ace. 


hunc 


banc 


hoc 


Gen. 


hujus 


in all genders. 




Dat. 


huic in all genders (monosyllable). 


Abl. 


hoc 


hac 

PLURAL. 


hoc 


Nom. 


hi 


hae 


haec 


Ace. 


hos 


has 


haec 


Gen. 


horum 


harum 


horum 


Dat. Abl. 


his in 


all genders. 





Obs. Ce is sometimes appended to the cases in m and s, particu- 
larly the last : e.g. hujusce, hosce, horunce ; and this form is more 

6 



82 LATIN GRAMMAR. §83 

emphatic. In those cases which end in c, an e was sometimes heard 
after the c in the older pronunciation ; as, hunce, hice, huice. From 
this with the interrogative particle ne originated hicine, hocine (less 
correctly hiccine), &c. (In the cases in c, the demonstrative particle ce 
coalesces with the stem of the pronoun. Hice, haece, for hi, hae, 
was antiquated.) Huic, pronounced as a dissyllable, belongs to a later 
period. 

§ 82. 2. Iste. 

SINGULAR. 
MASC. FEM. NEUT. 

Nom. iste ista istud 

Ace. istum istam istud 

Gen. istius in all genders. 

Dat. isti ,, ,, 

Abl. isto ista isto 

The plural (isti, istae, ista) is declined regularly after the second and 
first declension. 

3. In the same way is declined ille, ilia, illud. 

Obs. 1. From an old form ollus for ille, we find in Virg. a dat. sing, 
and nom. plur. olli. The gen. illi, illae, for illius, and the dat. illae 
(fern.) for illi, are obsolete. (Instead of istius and illius we also find in 
verse istius and illius : comp. § 37, Obs. 2.) For ellum, see under is. 

Obs. 2. For iste and ille we find also istic, fern, istaec, neut. istoc 
or istuc, and illic, illaec, illoc or illuc, which in the nom., ace, and 
abl., are declined like hie. Sometimes in the antiquated style, ce is 
appended to other cases of iste and ille ; e.g. illasce. 

4. Like iste is declined ipse, ipsa, ipsum, only with m (not d) 
in the neuter. 

Obs. Ipse (sometimes in the comic poets ipsus) is formed from is 
and the termination pse, as idem is formed from is and dem. The old 
forms ea-pse, eam-pse, and eo-pse, for ipsa, ipsam, and ipso, are found 
in Plautus, and eapse in the word reapse, which was in use also at a 
later period ( =re ipsa, in fact). 

§ 83. 5. Is. 

SINGULAR. 
MASC. FEM. NEUT. 

Nom. is ea id 

Ace. eum earn id 

Gen. ejus in all genders. 

Dat. ei 

Abl. eo ea eo 



§ 85 THE PRONOUNS. 83 





xj 


□.r. 


PLURAL. 








MASC. 








FEM. 


NEUT. 


Nom. 


ii (ei) 








eae 


ea 


Ace. 


eos 








eas 


ea 


Gen. 


eorum 








earum 


eorum 


Dat. Abl. 


iis (eis) 


in 


aU 


genders. 







In the same way is declined idem (for is-dem), compounded of is and 
the syllable dem; viz., idem, eadem, idem, dem being added to the 
cases of is. (Ace. eu?idem, ea^dem, gen. plur. eoruwdem.) 

Obs. 1. The orthography ei in the plural is rare (eidem scarcely 
ever used), eis less common than iis. Ii and iis were probably pro- 
nounced as monosyllables, and in the poets iidem and iisdem are always 
dissyllables (idem, isdem). 

Obs. 2. From the particles ecce and en (see there!), and the ace. 
masc. and fern, of is and ille, there originated in familiar language the 
forms eccum, eccam, eccos, eccas, ellum, ellam, ellos, ellas, which 
occur in Plautus and Terence. (In eccillum, eccistam, there is only 
an elision of e.) 

§ 84 6. Alius. 

SINGULAR. 
MASC. FEM. NEUT. 

Nom. alius alia aliud 

Ace. alium aliam aliud 

Gen. alius in all genders. 

Dat. alii ,, ,, ,, 

Abl. alio alia ' alio 

The plural is declined regularly after the second and first declension. 

Altera, altera, alterum, gen. alterius (see § 47, Obs. 2), dat. alteri, 
otherwise regular. 

Obs. Alteri in the plural signifies one (of two plurals), one (of two 
parties, &c), and in the same way (viz. for one of two plural parties) 
the plural of the other pronouns in ter is employed ; namely, utri, neu- 
tri, and the compounds of uter. 

§ 85. The Reflective pronoun se (himself, herself, itself, them- 
selves) refers back to the person or thing which is the subject of the 
proposition, without being itself united to a substantive. It has in 
the ace. and abl. of both numbers se or sese, in the dat. sibi. The 
nom. is wanting, as also the gen. ; and in place of the gen. is used 
the derivative Sims, or its neut. gen. sui, as meus and mei in ego 
(§ 79, Obs. 1). 

Obs. Met is affixed to se and sibi, as to ego (§ 79, Obs. 2). 



84 LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§87 



§ 86. The Relative pronoun qvi (who, which) refers to some- 
thing in another proposition, which the relative clause serves to 
define or describe (Cato, qvi; is, qvi). It is declined as fol- 
lows : — 





SINGULAR. 








MASC. 


FEM. 


NEUT. 


NOM. 


qvi 


qvae 


qvod 


Acc. 


qvem 


qvam 


qvod 


Gen. 


cujus in all genders. 






Dat. 


cui ,, ,, ,, 






Abl. 


qvo 

PLURAL. 


qva 


qvo 


NOM. 


qvi 


qvae 


qvae 


Acc. 


qvos 


qvas 


qvae 


Gen. 


qvorum 


qvarum 


qvorum 



Dat. Abl. qvibus (qvis) in all genders. 

Obs. 1. The more ancient way of writing the genitive and dative was 
qvojus and qvoi. Cui, as a dissyllable, is found only in the later 
poets. 

Obs. 2. The ablative qvis (qveis is only another way of writing it) 
is antiquated, but sometimes readopted by later writers. An old form 
qvi occurs as an abl. sing., but is only used by good writers in combina- 
tion with the preposition cum (qvicum = qvocum, masc. and neut., 
in the more antiquated style also = qvacum, fern.), and with verbs in 
some few expressions as a neuter after an indefinite pronoun understood ; 
haheo, qvi utar, / have (something) to use ; vix reliqvit, qvi efferre- 
tur, enough to bury him ; compare § 88, Obs. 2. 

§ 87. The Indefinite Relative pronouns qvicunqve, qvisqvis 
(every one who, whoever), liter, utercunqve (whichever of two), 
show that the assertion of the proposition in which they occur 
comprises several individuals, and that it is indifferent which is 
thought of. 

Qvicunqve, qvaecunqve, qvodcunqve, is declined like qvi (the 
affix cunqve remains unaltered) ; uter, utra, utrum (usually an 
interrogative pronoun) is regularly declined (except in the gen. and 
dat. sing, utrius, utri ; see § 37, Obs. 2), and so also utercunqve. 

Qvisqvis is usually found only in the nom. masc, and the nom. 
and acc. neut. (qvidqvid or qvicqvid, subst.), also in the abl. masc. 
and neut. (qvoqvo) : we rarely meet with qvemqvem, qvibusqvi- 



§ 88 PRONOUNS. 85 

bus, and not till a late period with the abl. fern, qvaqva. From the 
unused gen. has originated by an abbreviated pronunciation the ex- 
pression cuicuimodi, of whatever kind, 

Obs. 1. It is rarely (in the best writers only in the expression 
qvacunqve ratione, in any way, qvocunqve modo, Sail.) that 
qvicunqve occurs simply as an indefinite pronoun, with the notion of 
universality (every one), without a relative signification. So also qvis- 
qvis in the expression qvoqvo modo, in any way. 1 

Obs. 2. Qvicunqve is sometimes resolved, and its parts separated 
by the interposition of an unaccented word ; e.g. qvare cunqve pos- 
sum (even by two pronouns : qvo ea me cunqve ducet, Cic). The 
same division (tmesis) occurs in qvaliscunqve (§ 93) ; e.g. necesse 
est, aliqvid sit melius, qvale id cunqve est. It occurs less fre- 
quently in qvantuscunqve and qvilibet (cujus rei libet simulator, 
Sail.). 

§ 88. The Interrogative pronoun, which requires that an object 
in question should be specified, is qvis or qvi, fern, qvae, neut. 
qvid or qvod, who ? which ? with the more emphatic form qvisnam, 
qvinam, qvaenam, qvidnam, qvodnam, who then? which then? 
and uter, utra, utrum, which of two? (see § 87). Qvis and qvis- 
nam, with the exception of the double nom. masc, and the nom. and 
ace. neut., are declined exactly like the relative pronoun qvi. In 
the neuter qvid and qvidnam are substantives, qvod and qvodnam 
adjectives (qvid feci? qvod facinus commisit? qvodnam consilium 
cepit ?). In the masculine, qvis is both a substantive and adjective, 
qvi for the most part an adjective (qvi cantus?). 

Obs. 1. Qvis (with the nominative ending s) occurs as an ad- 
jective in the older writers (Cic.) chiefly with substantives which 
denote a person (qvis senator ? qvis rex ? but qvi vir ? in the signi- 
fication, what man = what sort of man ?) but often, too, with others 
(qvis locus ? qvis casus ?) . Qvi (qvinam) , on the other hand, is rare 
as a substantive, and is found almost exclusively in dependent inter- 
rogative clauses ; as, non id solum spectatur, qvi debeat, sed etiam 
qvi possit ulcisci (Cic. Divin. in Caec. 16). In independent inter- 
rogative sentences (e.g. qvi primus Ameriam nuntiat ?) , it is almost 
unused. 

Obs. 2. The ablative form qvi (see § 86, Obs. 2) is used only in the 
signification how ? (qvi fit ? qvi convenit ? how is it suitable ?) 



1 Qvidqyid for qvidqve (§ 89) in certain combinations, as ut qvidqvid for ut 
qvidqve (Cic), is rare and antiquated. 



86 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 91 

§ 89. The Indefinite pronouns are qvis, one, any one; aliqvis, 
qvispiam, one, any one ; qvisqvam, any one whatever ; ullus, any ; 
qvidam, some one, a certain one ; alteruter, one or the other (of 
two) ; with those which have a distributive signification ; qvisqve, 
each severally ; unusqvisqve, each individual; uterqve, properly, 
each of two separately ; then, both (uterqve frater, both brothers ; 
uterqve eorum, both of them ; utriqve, both parties) ; and those 
which denote a universality without distinction (which may be 
named indefinita universalia) ; qvivis, qvilibet, any one you like 
(whoever it may be) ; utervis, uterlibet, any one you like (of two) ; 
to which may also be added the negative words nemo, no one 
(subst.) ; nihil, nothing (subst.) ; nullus, no, none ; neuter, neither. 

§90. 1. Qvis, qvi, fern. ; qvae and qva, neut. ; qvid and qvod, 
— is declined (except in the nom.) like the relative pronoun, with the 
exception, that the nom. and ace. neut. plural, as well as the nom. 
sing, fern., have both forms qvae and qva. Qvid is used as a 
substantive, qvod as an adjective ; qvis as both, and in all combina- 
tions (dicat qvis, si qvis, si qvis dux), qvi only after the conjunc- 
tions si, nisi, ne, num, both as a substantive and an adjective, but 
chiefly as an adjective (ne qvis and ne qvi, si qvis dux and si 
qvi dux) . Qva is more common in the neut. plural than qvae. 1 

The following are formed from qvis, and declined like it : ecqvis, 
ecqvi, ecqva, ecqvae, ecqvid, ecqvod, does any one ? and the stronger 
form ecqvisnam (also numqvisnam) . 

2. Like qvis is declined aliqvis, except that it has only aliqva 
in the fern. sing, and neut. plur. Aliqvid is used as a substantive, 
aliqvod as an adjective ; aliqvis as both, aliqvi as an adjective. 

3. Qvisqvam, neut. qvidqvam (qvicqvam) without a fem., and 
without a plur., is declined like qvis (without qvi or qvod). 

Obs. Qvisqvam is- used as a substantive, and also as an adjective 
with the appellations of persons (scriptor qvisqvam, qvisqvam 
Gallus) ; the corresponding ullus as an adjective, but sometimes (in the 
best writers only ullius and ullo, in some also the dat. ulli) it is used 
as a substantive. 

§ 91. 4. Qvidam, qvispiam, qvivis, qvilibet, and qvisqve, are 
declined like the relative pronoun, except that as substantives they 
have in the neuter the form qvid (qviddam, &c), as adjectives 

1 And, to judge by the poets, in the fem. sing. also. 



§ 92 PRONOUNS. 87 

qvod (qvoddam, &C.). 1 In unusqvisqve both words are declined 
(unaqvaeqve, unumqvidqve and unumqvodqve, unumqvemqve, 

&c). 

In utervis (utravis, utrumvis), uterlibet (utralibet, utrumlibet), 
uterqve (utraqve, utrumqve), uter is declined (utriusqve, &c, see 
§ 87) . In alteruter sometimes both words are declined (alterautra, 
alterumutrum, gen. alteriusutrius, &c), sometimes only the last 
(alterutra, alterutrum) . The adjectives ullus (a, um), nullus, non- 
nullus, neuter (neutra, neutrum), are regularly declined, except in 
the gen. (ullius, &c, neutrius) and in the dative (ulli, &c, neutri). 

Nemo is a substantive of the masculine gender, and follows the 
third declension (see § 41 under the termination o, inis). The 
genitive is not used in common language, nor the ablative in the 
best writers ; in their stead nullius and nullo are used. 2 

Obs. Nemo is also used as an adjective with the names of persons ; 
e.g. nemo scriptor, nemo Gallus. (Also scriptor nullus, but with 
national names always nemo.) 

Nihil is nominative and accusative without any other cases. 
(The form nihilum with the genitive nihili and the ablative ni- 
hilo is used in some few combinations. See § 494, b, Obs. 3.) 

§ 92. From the personal and reflective pronouns are derived 
adjectives, which denote that an object belongs to the speaker, or 
the person addressed, or the subject previously named ; meus, tuus, 
suus, noster (nostra, nostrum), vester (vestra, vestrum), my, thy, 
his (reflect.), their, our, your. They are called Possessive pro- 
nouns, and are regularly declined after the second and first declen- 
sion, except that meus has mi in the voc. masc. 

Obs. 1. Pte is sometimes affixed to the abl. sing, of these adjectives 
(most frequently to that of suus) , in order to express more emphati- 
cally that a thing belongs to a person, as contrasted with what is not his 
own ; as, meopte ingenio, suopte pondere. Met is also attached to 
suus (as to ego, se), most frequently when followed by ipse; e.g. 
suamet ipse fraude, by Ms own deceit. This appendage is but rarely 
found with mea (meamet facta, Sail. ; meamet culpa, Plaut.). 

Obs. 2. A possessive pronoun is also formed from the relative and 
interrogative pronoun, cujus, cuja, cujum, whose 9 (he) whose: e.g. 
cujum pecus? is, cuja res est; but it is only used in the antiquated 

1 Instead of quidpiam, quidque ; also, quippiam quicque. 

2 Neminis occurs in Plautus, nemine in Tacitus, Syetonius, &c. The dat. nulli ia 
rarely used as a substantive. 



88 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§93 



and legal style, and there, besides the nom. and ace. sing., only in the 
abl. fern. sing, (cuja causa), and the nom. and ace. plur. fern. 

Obs. 3. From noster, vester, and cujus (interrogative) come the 
adjectives of one termination, nostras, vestras, cujas (ace. nostratem, 
&c), of our nation (belonging to our town, our nation), of your nation, 
ofwliich nation^ corresponding to the adjectives in as derived from the 
names of towns. 



§ 93. Besides the possessive pronouns, the Latins have other 
adjectives, which denote a person or thing pronominally (i.e. by 
referring to it) in respect to its quality, size, or number ; as, talis, 
such. The adjectives, which, while they express one and the same 
idea, are variously formed to correspond with the different kinds of 
pronouns, are called correlative adjectives. 

These adjectives are, — 



DEMONST. RELAT. AND INTERROG. 

talis, e, of such qvalis, e (of such a 
a quality, quality) as (rel.) ; 

of what quality r ? 
(interrog.) . 



INDEF. REL. INDEFINITE. 

(Indefin. and indef. univers.) 



tantus (a, 

urn), so 
great. 



qvantus (so great) 
as (rel.) ; how 
greats (interrog.). 



qvaliscun- 
qve, 

of what 
quality so- 
ever. 
qvantuscun- 
qve, how 
great so- 
ever. 



qvalislibet, of 
any quality 
you please. 



tot (undecl.), 
so many. 

totidem (un- 
decl.), just 
so many. 



qvot (so many) as 
(rel.) ; how many ? 
(interrog.) . 

qvotus, which in the 
series^ 



qvotcunqve, 
qvotqvot, 

how many 
soever. 



aliqvantus, of 
a certain, con- 
siderable size. 

qvantuslibet, 

of any size you 

please. 
qvantusvis. 
aliqvot, some. 



Obs. 1. Qvaliscunqve and qvantuscunqve are also used as simply 
indefinite (not relative) pronouns. Aliqvantus is commonly used only 
in the neuter gender (aliqvantum, aliqvanto), and as a substantive or 
adverb. From tantus, &c, are formed the diminutives tantulus, of 
such (small, insignificant) size, qvantulus, qvantuluscunqve, ali- 






§ 96 INFLECTION OF VERBS. 89 

qvantulum (a little) . From tantum is formed tantundem (nom. ace. 
newt.), just so much, gen. tantidem. 

Obs. 2. For the pronominal adverbs, see the Rules for the Formation 
of Words, §201. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE INFLECTION OF THE VERBS IN GENERAL. 

§ 94. A Verb expresses the condition or agency of a person or 
thing (the subject) ; e.g. caleo, / am warm ; curro, amo, frango, 
/ run, I love, I break. 

The agency denoted by the verb either passes immediately to an 
object which is operated upon, and the name of which is added (in 
the accusative), and then the verb is called Transitive (properly, 
passing over, from transeo) : e.g. amo Deum, frango ramum, Hove 
God, I break a branch ; or it is complete in the subject alone, with- 
out passing immediately to an object, and then the verb is termed 
Intransitive {not passing over) or neuter: e.g. curro, I run. 

Obs. A verb which is usually transitive may also be sometimes used 
in such a sense, that no object is to be considered as acted en : e.g. 
amo, 1 am in love; bibo vinum, I drink wine (trans.) ; bibo, I drink 
(without specifying more particularly, intrans.). In the same way an 
intransitive verb may assume a signification in which it becomes transi- 
tive : e.g. excedo, I go out ; excedo modum, I exceed bounds. 

§ 95. From transitive verbs a new form is deduced, by which it 
is expressed of a thing, that it suffers the action, or is the object of 
it: e.g. amor, I am loved; ramus frangitur, a branch is broken. 
This form is called the Passive (the suffering form ; also, genus 
verbi passivum), in contradistinction to the original form, which is 
called the Active (form of activity; genus activum). 

Obs. Intransitive verbs may be used in the third person of the pas- 
sive form without a definite subject (impersonally) : e.g. curritur, it is 
run (they run). See the Syntax, § 218, c. 

§ 96. Modi, Moods, Ways. The Latin verbs have four moods, 
or forms, to distinguish the way in which a thing is stated. These 
are, — 



90 LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§98 



a. The Indicative mood, the declarative way, by which a thing is 
declared as actually taking place or existing ; e.g. vir scribit, the man 
is writing. 

b. The Subjunctive mood, the suppositive way, by which a thing is 
simply declared as supposed : e.g. scribat aliqvis, some one may write ; 
ut scribat, that he may write ; scribat, may he write I (denoting a wish) . 

c. The Imperative mood, the commanding way, by which a thing is 
commanded or desired ; e.g. scribe, write I 

d. The Infinitive mood, the indefinite way, by which the action or 
condition is denoted in a general and indefinite manner ; e.g. scribere, 
to write. 

§ 97. In the different moods, the verbs have, also, distinct forms 
to express the time to which the act may belong. These forms are 
found most complete in the indicative active ; namely : — 

1. For the present time, the present tense ; e.g. scribo, I write. 

2. For the past time, three forms of a preterite tense : — 

a. The perfect, t. praet. perfectum (of a thing which is simply and 
absolutely declared as past) ; e.g. scripsi, I wrote, I have written. 

b. The imperfect, t. praet. imperfectum (of a thing, which was 
present at a certain given time) ; e.g. scribebam, I was (then) writing. 

c. The pluperfect, t. praet. plus qvamperfec turn (of a thing which 
had already taken place at a certain time) ; e.g. scripseram, i" had 
written. 

3. For the future time, the future tense, two forms : — 

a. The simple future, t. fut. simplex, or t. futurum (of a thing 
which is denoted as simply and absolutely future) ; e.g. scribam, I shall 
write, 

b. The future perfect, t. fut. exactum (of a thing which will be 
already past at a certain future time) ; e.g. scripsero, I shall (then) 
have written. 

The Present, the Perfect, and the simple Future are the three 
leading tenses. 

The Subjunctive has the same tenses as the Indicative, except 
the future passive, which has no form to express it. 

The Imperative has two tenses, the present and future. 

The Infinitive has the three leading tenses. 

§ 98. Persons and Numbers. Verbs have distinct termina- 
tions in the Indicative and Subjunctive, according as their subject 
is the speaker himself (first person), or the person addressed (sec- 
ond person), or is different from both (third person) ; they also 



§ 99 INFLECTION OF VERBS. 91 

receive different endings, according as the subject is in the sin- 
gular or the plural; e.g. scribo, I write; scribis, thou writest 
(you write) ; scribit, he (she, it) writes ; scribimus, we write; scri- 
bitis, ye write ; scribunt, they write. 

Obs. In the active, the termination of the first person singular is o, i, 
or m, of the second s (sti), of the third t ; in the plural, that of the first 
mus, of the second tis, of the third nt. In the passive the terminations 
are, in the singular, 1, r; 2, ris and re ; 3, tur; in the plural, 1, mur ; 
2, mini; 3, ntur. 

The imperative has only the second and third person, not the first, 
since it always expresses an exhortation or command addressed to others. 

§ 99. Noun Forms. Besides the forms already given, verbs 
have a substantive form in urn and u (accusative and ablative), 
which are called the first and second Supines ; and, like the infinitive, 
denote the action in general, but are used only in certain special 
combinations : e.g. scrip turn, in order to write ; scriptu, to he writ- 
ten (as, facilis scriptu, easy to he written)} 

Further, there are three Participles (participium, from parti* 
ceps, sharing), or adjective forms, to denote that the action is 
thought of as a property belonging to a person or thing. Two of 
these participles are active, the third passive. 

a. The present active participle ; e.g. scribens, ivriting. 

b. The future active participle ; e.g. scripturus (a, um), one who 
will write, is on the point of writing. 

c. The perfect passive participle; e.g. scriptus (a, um), icritten 
(from transitive verbs) . 

There is, moreover, a form in the neuter, which follows the 
second declension, but without a nominative, which is called the 
Gerund, 2 and is used to denote an action in general (like the infini-; 
tive), but only in some of the cases; e.g. scribendo, hy writing; 
ad scribendum, to writing. 

From the gerund there is formed in transitive verbs (by the ter- 
minations us, a, um) a participle or participial adjective in the 
passive, which is called the Gerundive, and denotes that the action 
is happening, or must happen, with reference to a person or thing : 
e.g. in epistola scribenda, in writing the letter; epistola scri* 
benda est, the letter is to he written, must he written? 

1 The name Supine is borrowed from the adjective supinus, bent backward. 

2 From gero, I perform. 

3 It is less correctly named the future participle passive. 



92 LATIN GRAMMAR. §100 

From intransitive verbs the perfect participle and the gerundive are 
formed only in the neuter, and not used as adjectives, but only in com- 
bination with the verb esse, to be, to form an impersonal sentence : as, 
cursum est, it has been run (they have run) ; currendum est, it must 
be run (they must run) . 

Obs. Of the declension and comparison of participles we have already 
treated under the adjectives, Ghap. X. 

§ 100. Conjugations. The way in which the endings, which 
express moods, tenses, persons, and numbers, are combined with 
the stem of the verb, differs ; and sometimes these endings them- 
selves differ more or less according to the last letter (the charac- 
teristic letter) of the stem, and hence arise four kinds of inflection, 
called conjugations, 1 to one of which every verb belongs. 

a. To the first conjugation belong those verbs the stem of which 
ends in a. This vowel is united, by contraction, with o in the first 
person of the present indicative active : e.g. amo, I love ; but is 
seen in the second person amas, and in the other forms : e.g. in the 
present infinitive active in are ; as, amare, to love. 

Obs. The a may be preceded by another vowel : e.g. creo, / create, 
infinitive creare ; crucio, I torture, cruciare ; sinuo, I bend, sinuare. 

b. To the second conjugation belong the verbs with the charac- 
teristic letter e, which in the present infinitive active end in ere : 
e.g. moneo (mone-o), I advise, remind, infinitive monere. 

c. To the third conjugation belong those verbs of which the 
characteristic letter is a consonant or the vowel u ; in the present 
infinitive they have ere : e.g. scribo, / write, scribere ; minuo, / 
lessen, minuere. 

Obs. To the third conjugation belong some verbs in which an i has 
been inserted in the present indicative active after the proper character- 
istic letter; e.g. capio (cap-i-o), I take, infinitive capere. 

d. To the fourth conjugation belong the verbs with the charac- 
teristic letter i ; in the present infinitive they have ire : e.g. audio, 
I hear, audlre. 

Obs. Since the present indicative may have the same ending in verbs 
of different conjugations, the conjugation to which the verb belongs is 
best indicated by the present infinitive active. 

1 Conjugatio properly signifies a combination in one class, and denotes only the verbs 
which belong to the same class. But it is now used of the inflection itself, and we say, to con- 
jugate a verb, an expression not used by the Romans, who employed the term declinare. 



§ 103 INFLECTION OF VERBS. 93 

§ 101. The first and second conjugation, having the vowels a and e 
for their characteristic letters, and thus being pure verbs, resemble each 
other (as the first and second declension). The consonants of the 
endings are appended to the vowel of the stem ; e.g. ama-s, mone-s, 
ama-nt, mone-nt. In the third conjugation (which corresponds to the 
third declension, and in which the verbs are impure) a connecting vowel 
is inserted between the consonants of the stem and of the ending; e.g. 
leg-i-s, leg-u-nt. The verbs of the second conjugation (with some few 
exceptions, § 122) reject the e in the perfect and supine, and are here 
inflected like impure verbs. The fourth conjugation is partly similar to 
the two first conjugations : e.g. in audi-s, audi-re, audi-vi ; partly 
to the third : e.g. in audi-unt, audi-ebam, audi-am (in the future). 

§ 102. Derivation of the Particular Forms in all Tenses 
and Moods. If the present indicative be known, the stem is found 
by taking away 0, the ending of the first person (and in the first con- 
jugation adding at the same time the a, which has been amalga- 
mated with this ending ; see § 100, a) ; as, ama (first person amo), 
mone (moneo), scrib (scribo), audi (audio). From this stem is 
formed the present of the other moods, the imperfect of all the 
moods, the future indicative and imperative, the participle present 
and the gerundive, by adding the particular ending of each form, 
as is shown by the examples of all four conjugations given below 
(§ 109). 

Obs. 1. The characteristics a, e, i, are always long when they end a 
syllable, and are not followed by a vowel. 

Obs. 2. Of those verbs of the third conjugation in which an i is 
inserted after the characteristic letter (§ 100, c, Obs.), it is to be ob- 
served, that this i is everywhere dropped before another i, and 'before e 
when followed by r (therefore capis, capere, but capiet), and also in 
the formation of the perfect and supine, and those forms which are - 
regulated by them (§ 103-106). 

§ 103. The formation of the perfect indicative active is particu- 
larly to be noticed. 

a. In the first and fourth conjugation it is formed by adding vi to the 
stem : amavi, audivi ; in the second conjugation the characteristic e is 
rejected and ui affixed: monui (mon-ui). 1 

Obs. The deviations from this rule are noticed below, Chap. XVII. seq. 

b. In the third conjugation, the perfect in some verbs ends only in i, 

1 Ui and vi-are originally the same termination. 



94 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 105 

in others in si, in others in ui. The most simple form is found in 
verbs with the characteristic letter u, where i is affixed to the stem: 
e.g. minuo, I diminish (minu) , perf. minui ; and in many with the 
characteristic letters b, p, c (qv, h), g (gv), and d, where si is 
affixed, d being omitted before this ending (bsi is changed to psi, gsi 
and csi to xi ; see § 10) : e.g. repsi, from repo, i" creep (rep) ; scripsi, 
from scribo, I write ; dixi, from dico, I say ; laesi, from laedo, I hurt. 
What ending is used with each of the other verbs will be shown below 
(Chap. XIX.). 

Those verbs which form their perfect with i only, and have a consonant 
for their characteristic, lengthen the vowel in the syllable which precedes 
the ending when it is short, and is not lengthened by position ; e.g. legi, 
from lego, to choose, read (collegi, from colligo). Some verbs with the 
perfect in i have the reduplication, i.e., the first consonant with its fol- 
lowing vowel, if this be o or 11 (6, u),but otherwise, with e, is prefixed to 
the stem : e.g. curro, I run, perf. cucurri; in this case, the vowel of the 
radical syllable is not lengthened, but occasionally modified (weakened, 
§ 5, c) : e.g. cado, I fall, perf. cecidi. In compound words, the redu- 
plication is dropped: e.g. incidi, from incido (compounded of in and 
cado) ; except in some particular verbs (which are given below, in the 
list of the perfects and supines) . 

Obs. The lengthening of the radical vowel takes place also in 
verbs of the other conjugations, which (varying from the general rule) 
have i only in the perfect. The following only have a short syllable 
before i : bibi, fidi, scidi, tuli, from bibo, findo, scindo, fero. In some 
verbs the reduplication is irregular: e.g. steti, from sto (1st conj.) ; 
stiti, from sisto ; spopondi, from spondeo (2d conj.). 

§ 104 By the perfect indicative active is regulated the perfect 
of the other moods (the subjunctive and infinitive), together with 
the pluperfect and the future perfect (indicative and subjunctive) 
in the active, so that the particular endings of these tenses are 
added to the form of the perfect indicative, after the ending of the 
first person, i, has been removed ; e.g. amaveram (pluperf. indie, 
act.) from amav-i. 

§ 105. The supines in the first, third, and fourth conjugations, 
are formed by adding to the stem the endings turn (1st sup.) and tu 
(2d sup.), before which b is changed by the pronunciation to p, g 
(qv, h, gv) to c (§ 10) ; amatum, scriptum (minutum), audltum, 
amatu, scriptu (minutu), auditu. In the third conjugation the 
verbs with the characteristic d have the endings sum, su, before 
which d is dropped ; e.g. laesum, laesu, from laedo, / hurt. 



§ 107 INFLECTION OF VERBS. 95 

In the second conjugation, the e of the stem is rejected, and itum, itu, 
are affixed ; as, nionitum, monitu. (I is a connecting vowel, inserted 
for the sake of the pronunciation.) 

Obs. 1. With respect to the irregularities which are produced by 
the addition of sum instead of turn in other verbo (besides those 
already mentioned), and by changes in the stem, see Chap. XVII.. 
seq. 

Obs. 2. The termination itum is everywhere the regular one, where 
the perfect has ui (also in the third conjugation, and those verbs of the 
first which vary from the general rule) ; e.g. gemo, I groan, perf. gemui, 
sup. gemitum, except where u is the characteristic letter of the stem ; 
e.g. minuo, minutum. 

Obs. 3. I is always long in the supine, when the perfect has vi, except 
in itum, citum, litum, qvitum, situm, from the verbs eo, cieo, lino, 
qveo, sino, with an irregular formation. The following only have a 
short a : datum, ratum, satum, from do, reor, sero, also formed irregu- 
larly. Rutum, from ruo, is the only instance with a short u. 

§ 106. The participle perfect of the passive, and the participle 
future of the active, are formed, like the supine, by substituting 
their endings us, a, um, and urus, lira, urnm, in the place of 
urn ; amatus, monltus, seriptus, laesus, aiulltus, amaturus, moni- 
turus, scripturus, laesurus, auditurus. It is therefore only neces- 
sary to name the first supine, to show the form of both supines as 
well as these participles. 

Obs. 1. If the supine be not regularly formed from the present, these 
participles vary in the same way. 

Obs. 2. In some few of those verbs, of which the supine and participle 
perfect vary from the regular formation, the participle future is, never- 
theless, formed from the present, turus or iturus being added to the 
stem ; juvaturus, secaturus, sonattirus, pariturus, ruiturus, moritu-; 
rus, nasciturus, oriturus ; see, under the irregular verbs, juvo, seco, 
sono, of the 1st conj. ; pario and ruo, of the 3d; and, under the 
deponents, morior, nascor (3d), and orior (4th). 

§ 107. For some tenses no simple form is deduced from the verb, 
but they are* expressed periphrastically by the combination of a 
participle with a tense of the (auxiliary) verb sum, / am. In the 
active voice this occurs in the future subjunctive and infinitive, 
with the help of the future participle ; and in the passive, with the 
help of the perfect participle, it occurs in the perfect tense and in 
all those tenses which in the active voice derive their form from 
the perfect. 



96 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§108 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE VERB SUM, AND EXAMPLES OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 

§ 108. The verb sum, / am, is inflected quite differently from 
the other verbs, in the following manner : — 



INDICATIVE. 


SUBJTJTSTCTIVE. 


I am. 


Present. 


I may be. 1 


sum, I am. 


siimus, we are. 


sim simus 


es, thou art. 


estis, you are. 


sis sitis 


est, he (she, it) is. 


sunt, they are. 


sit sint 


I was. 


Imperfect 


I might be. 1 


eram 


eramus 


essem essemus 


eras 


eratis 


esses essetis 


erat 


erant 


esset essent 



I have been. Perfect. 

fui fuimus 

fuisti fuistis 

fuit fuerunt 



I may have been. 1 

fuerim fuerimus 

fueris fueritis 

fuerit fuerint 



/ had been. Pluperfect. I might have been. 

fueram fueramus fuissem fuissemus 

fueras fueratis fuisses fuissetis 

fuerat fuerant fuisset fuissent 



ero 
eris 
erit 



Future (simple), I shall be. 

erunus futurus sim futuri simus 

eritis futurus sis futuri sitis 

erunt futurus sit futuri sint 



fuero 
fueris 
fuerit 



Future Perfect, i* shall have been. 

fuerimus fuerim fuerimus 

fueritis fueris fueritis 

fuerint fuerit fuerint 



i This is only one of several forms by which the subjunctive mood may be represented in 
English. It may be translated with equal correctness into the indicative mood, or the impera- 
tive or infinitive, according to the nature of the sentence in which it occurs. This is true of 
the subjunctive of all verbs. (T.) 



§ 108 THE VERB SUM, AND ITS CONJUGATIONS. 97 



IMPERATIVE. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Pres. 2. es, be thou! este, be ye! 

Fut. 2. esto, thou shalt be. 1 estote, you shall be. 

Fur. 3. esto, he shall be, sunto, they shall be. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, esse, to be. Perfect, fuisse, to have been. 

Future, futurus (a, urn) esse, or (in the accus.) futu- 
rum (am) esse; plur., futuri (ae, a), futu- 
ros (as, a) esse, to be about to be. 

PARTICIPLE. 
Future, futurus (a, um), that will be, future. 

Obs. 1. The supine and gerund are wanting. The participle present 
is not used as a verb ; as a substantive, it is found (rarely) in philosophi- 
cal language, — ens, the being. 

Obs. 2. Like sum are declined its compounds: absum, I am absent 
(abfui or afui) ; adsum, I am present (or assum, perf. afFui or adfui, 
see § 173) ; desum, I am wanting (deest, deeram, &c, were pro- 
nounced dest, deram) ; insum, I am in ; intersum, I am present ; 
obsum, I am in the way ; praesum, I am at the head; prosum, I profit; 
subsum, I am amongst; supersum, I am remaining, of which absum 
and praesum alone form the participle present ; absens, absent ; prae- 
sens, present. Prosum inserts a d before the e of the verb ; e.g. 
prosum, prodes, prodest, prosumus, prodestis, prosunt. 

Obs. 3. For futurus esse (the fut. inf.) there is another form, fore; 
and for essem (imperf. subj.) a form, forem, fores, foret, forent 
(afifore, afforem, profore, proforem, &c), on the use of which see 
§ 377, Obs. 2, and § 410. (In combination with a participle, fore must 
always be used ; e.g. laudandum fore, not laudandum futurum esse.) 

Obs. 4. The forms siem, sies, siet, sient, in the pres. subj., are 
antiquated, and still more fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant ; the forms escit, 
escunt (esit, esunt), in the fut. indie, are quite obsolete. When est 
came after a vowel or m, the e was omitted in the earlier period, both in 
speaking and writing (nata st, natum st, oratio st) ; in the comic 
writers the termination us also coalesces with est (factust, opust, for 
factus est, opus est) ; and occasionally with es (Qvid mcritu' s ? 
Ter. Andr. III. 5, 15). 

1 In English the forms be thou, be ye, let him be, let them be, are also used for the future; 
that is, in commands which are to he oheyed either immediately, or at any future time. (T.) 

7 



98 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§109 



Obs. 5. The forms of the verb sum are properly derived from two 
roots es (whence esum, afterwards sum, and all the forms beginning 
with e) and fu (fuo). (In Greek, ei[u and 0i>«.) 

§ 109. The whole formation of the tenses, and the inflection 
according to persons and numbers in each tense in the four conju- 
gations, may be seen from the following verbs, which are given 
entire as examples ; amo (stem, ama) of the first, moneo of the 
second, scribo of the third, audio of the fourth conjugation. Under 
the third conjugation are given at the same time tenses of minuo, 
as an example of a verb with the characteristic letter u ? and of 
capio, as an example of a verb with an i inserted after the charac- 
teristic letter. 

I. ACTIVE. 
A. Indicative. 



I. CONJ. 


II. CONJ. 


III. CONJ. 


IV. CONJ. 




Present. 




amo, (I) love. 


moneo, (I) advise. 


scribo, (I) write. 


audio, (I) hear. 


amas, (thou) lovest. 


mones 


scribis 


audis 


amat, (he, she, it) loves. 


monet 


scribit 


audit 


amamus, {we) love. 


monemus 


scribimus 


audimus 


amatis, (you) love. 


monetis 


scribitis 


auditis 


amant, (they) love. 


monent 


scribunt 1 


audiunt 




Imperfect. 




(Ending, in the First and Second Conj., bam ; in the Third and Fourth, ebam.) 


amabam, I loved or 


monebam 


scribebam 


audiebam 


was loving. 








amabas 


monebas 


scribebas 


audiebas 


amabat 


monebat 


scribebat 


audiebat 


amabamus 


monebamus 


scribebamus 


audiebamus 


amabatis 


monebatis 


scribebatis 


audiebatis 


amabant 


monebant 


scribebant 
minuebam 
capiebam 


audiebant 




Perfect 




(Ending, in the First and Fourth Conj., vi ; 


in the Second, ui (with the omission of the e) ; 


the Third, i, si, or ui. 


See §103) 






amavi, I loved or have 


monui 


scripsi 


audivi 


loved. 








amavisti 


monuisti 


scripsisti 


audivisti 


amavit 


monuit 


scripsit 


audivit 


amavimus 


monuimus 


scripsimus 


audivimus 


amavistis 


monuistis 


scripsistis 


audivistis 


amaverunt 


monuerunt 


scripserunt 


audiverunt 


(or amavere) 


(monuere) 


(scripsere) 
minui 


(audivere) 



1 In the same way also minuo, / lessen ; capio, / take, capis, capit, capimus, 
capitis, capiunt. 



§109 



EXAMPLES OP THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 



99 



Pluperfect. 
(Ending, eram, affixed to the perfect, after rejecting the i.) 



amaveram, I had monueram 

loved. 

amaveras monueras 

amaverat monuerat 

amaveramus monueramus 

amaveratis monueratis 

amaverant monuerant 



scnpseram 

scripseras 
scripserat 
scripseramus 
scrips era tis 
scripserant 
minueram 



audiveram 

audiveras 

audiverat 

audiveramus 

audiveratis 

audiverant 



Future (Simple). 
(Ending, in the First and Second Conj., bo; in the Third and Fourth, am.) 



amabOj I shall love. 

amabis 

amabit 

amabimus 

amabitis 

amabunt 



monebo 

monebis 

monebit 

monebimus 

monebitis 

monebunt 



s crib am 
scribes 
scribet 
s crib emus 
scribetis 
scribent 
minuam 
capiam, 
capies 



audiam 

audies 

audiet 

audiemus 

audietis 

audient 



Future Perfect. 
(Ending, ero, which is affixed to the perfect, after rejecting the i.) 



amavero, I shall have mormero 

loved. 

amaveris monueris 

amaverit monuerit 

ajnaverinius inonueriinus 

amaveritis 1 monueritis 

amaverint monuerint 



scripsero 

scripseris 
scripserit 
scripserimus 
scripseritis 
scripserint 
minuero 



audivero 

audiveris 

audiverit 

audiverimus 

audiveritis 

audiverint 



B. Subjunctive. 

Present. 

(Ending, am, which in the First Codj. coalesces with the a of the stem into em.) 



amem, I may love 


moneam 


s crib am 


audiam 


ames 


moneas 


s crib as 


audias 


amet 


moneat 


scribat 


audiat 


amemus 


moneamus 


scribamus 


audiamus 


ametis 


moneatis 


scribatis 


audiatis 


ament 


moneant 


s crib ant 
minuam 
capiam 


audiant 



1 The usual pronunciation in prose is amaverimus, amaveritis, &c. 



100 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§109 



Imperfect. 
(Ending in the First, Second, and Fourth Conj. rem ; in the Third, erem.) 



amarem, J might love, monerem 



amares 

amaret 

amaremus 

amaretis 

amarent 



moneres 

moneret 

nioneremus 

moneretis 

monerent 



scriberem 
scriberes 
scriberet 
scriberemus 
scriberetis 
scriberent 
minuerem, 
caperera 



audirem 

audires 

audiret 

audiremus 

audiretis 

audirent 



Perfect. 
(Ending erim, affixed to the perf. indie, after rejecting the i.) 



amaverim, I may monuerim 

have loved. 

amaveris monueris 

amaverit monuerit 

amaverimus monuerlmus 

amaveritis monueritis 

amaverint monuerint 



scripserim 

scripseris 
scripserit 
scripserimus 
scripseritis 
scripserint 
minuerim 



audiverim 

audiveris 

audiverit 

audiverimus 

audiverltis 

audiverint 



Pluperfect. 
(Ending issem, afilxed to the perf. indie, after rejecting the i.) 

amavisssm, I should monuissera scripsissem audivissem 

have loved. 

amavisses 

amavisset 

amavissemus 

amavissetis 

amavissent 



monuisses 

raonuisset 

monuissemus 

monuissetis 

monuissent 



scripsisses 

scripsisset 

scripsissemus 

scripsissetis 

scripsissent 

minuissem 



audivisses 

audivisset 

audivisseraus 

audivissetis 

audivissent 



amaturus, 
a, um 

amaturi, ae, 
a 



Future. 

moniturus, a, scripturus, a, auditurus, a, um 
um sim, &c. um sim, &c. sun, &c 

minuturus, a, 
simus - um sim, &c. 

sitis 
sint 

The Future Perfect is like the Perfect. 



t sim 
J sis 
( sit 



C. Imperative. 
Present. 
(In the First, Second, and Fourth Conj. the simple stem ; in the Third, the stem with S.) 
Sing. 2 ama, love ! mone scribe audi 



Plur. 2 amate 



monete 



scribite 
minue, cape, 
capite 



audlte 



§109 EXAMPLES OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 101 

Future. 

(Ending in the First, Second, and Fourth Conj. to ; in the Third, lto.) 

Sing. 2 and 3 amato moneto scribito audito 

Plur. 2 amatote monetote scribitote auditote 

3 amanto monento scribunto audiunto 

minuito, capito 

D. Infinitive. 

Present. 

(Ending in the First, Second, and Fourth Conj. re ; in the Third, ere.) 

amare, to love. monere scribere, min- audire 

uere, capere 

Perfect. 

(Ending isse, affixed to the perf. indie, after rejecting the i.) 

amavisse, to have monuisse scrip sisse audivisse 

loved. minuisse 

Future. 
Singular. • 

N. amaturus, a, moniturus, a, scripturus, a, auditurus, a, urn, 

urn, esse urn, esse urn, esse esse 

A. amaturum, am, moniturum, scripturum, auditurum, am, 

um, esse am, urn, esse am, um, esse urn, esse 

Plural. 

N. amaturi, ae, monituri, ae, a, seripturi, ae, audituri, ae, a, 

a, esse esse a, esse esse 

A. amaturos, as, monituros, as, scripturos, as, audituros, as, a, 

a, esse a, esse a, esse esse 

minuturus esse, 
&e. 

E. Supine. 

(Ending in the First, Third, and Fourth Conj. turn ; in the Second, ltum, after rejecting the e.) 

amatum, in order to monitum scriptum auditum 

love. minutum 

amatu monitu seriptu auditu 

minutu 

F. Gerund. 

(Ending in the First and Second Conj. ndum ; in the Third and Fourth, endum.) 

amandum monendum scrib endum audiendum 

(ace; gen. amandi ; minuendum, 

dat., abl., amando.) capiendum 

G. Participle. 

Present. 

(Ending in the First and Second Conj. ns; in the Third and Fourth, ens.) 

amans, loving. monens scribens audiens 

minuens, 
capiens 



102 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§109 



FUTURE. 

(Ending unis, affixed to the Supine, after rejecting um.) 
amaturus, a, um moniturus, a, scripturus, a, audlturus, a, um 



um 



um; minutu- 
rus, a, um 



II. PASSIVE. 

(All the simple tenses of the Indie, and Subj. are formed from those that correspond to 
them in the Active ; r being affixed to o, or substituted for m.) 



A. Indicative. 

I. CONJ. II. CONJ. III. CONJ. 
Present. 



amor, lam loved. moneor 

amaris (rarely amare) moneris (rarely 

monere) 

amatur monetur 

amamur monemur 

amamiui monemmi 

amantur monentur 



scribor 
scriberis 1 

scribitur 
scribimur 
scribimmi 
scribuntur 
minuor, capior, 
caperis, &c. 



Imperfect. 



amabar, I was loved. 
amabaris or ama- 

bare 
amabatur 
amabamur 
amabamini 
amabantur 



monebar 
monebaris, re 

monebatur 
monebamur 
monebamini 
monebantur 



scribebar 
scribebaris, re 

scribebatur 
scribebamur 
scribebamini 
scribebantur 

minuebar, 

capiebar 



IV. CONJ. 

audior 
audiris 

auditur 
audlmur 
audi mini 
audiuntur 



audiebar 
audiebaris, re 

audiebatur 
audiebamur 
audiebamini 
audiebantur 



amatus, < 
a, um 



a* 1 ^ 1 ' estis 
ae ' a ' sunt 



Perfect. 

sum, / have monitus, a, um, scriptus, a, um, 
been loved, sum, &c. sum, &c. 

or was mimitus sum 

loved. 

es 

est 
/sumus 



auditus, a, um, 
sum, &c. 



amatus, 
a, um 



"a**' eratis 



Pluperfect. 

eram, I had monitus, a, um, scriptus, a, um, 
been loved. eram, &c. eram, &c. 

minutus eram 
eras 
lerat 
( eramus 



auditus, a, um, 
eram, &c. 



erant 



1 See § 114, b. 



§109 



EXAMPLES OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 



103 



amabor, I shall be 

loved. 

amaberis or ama- 

bere 
amabitur 
amabimur 
amabimini 
amabuntur 



monebor 



Future. 

scribar 



moneberis, re scriberis, re 



audiar 

audieris, re 

audietur 
audiemur 
audiemini 
audientur 



amatus, 



c ero, / shall 

have been 



imatus, . . . 
7 J loved. 1 
a, um ^ 
■ ens 

.erit 

amati, primus 

ae,a erltls ! 
^erunt 



monebltur scribetur 

monebimur scribemur 

monebimini scribemini 

monebuntur scribentur 

minuar, 

capiar, capi- 

eris, &c. 

Future Perfect. 

monitus, a, um, scriptus, a, um, auditus, a, um, 
ero, &c. ero, &c. ero, &c. 

minutus ero 







B. Subjunctive. 






Present. 




amer, I may be loved. 


monear 


scribar 


audiar 


ameris or amere 


monearis, re 


scribaris, re 


audiaris, re 


ametur 


moneatur 


scribatur 


audiatur 


amemur 


moneamur 


scribamur 


audiamur 


amemini 


moneamini 


scribamini 


audiamini 


amentur 


moneantur 


scribantur 
minuar, 
capiar, &c. 


audiantur 




Imperfect. 




amarer, I might be 


monerer 


scriberer 


audirer 


loved. 








amareris or amarere 


monereris, re 


scribereris, re 


audireris, re 


amaretur 


moneretur 


scriberetur 


audiretur 


amaremur 


moneremur 


scriberemur 


audiremur 


amaremini 


moneremini 


scriberemini 


audiremini 


amarentur 


monerentur 


scriberentur 
minuerer, 
caperer 


audirentur 




Perfect. 






' sim, I may 


monitus, a, um, 


scriptus, a, um, 


auditus, a, 


amatus, 
a, um 


have been 

loved. 
sis 
sit 


sim, &c. 


sim, &c. 
minutus sim 


sim, &c. 



amati, ( simus 

ae,a sitis 
^sint 



1 For amatus ero, eris, &c, amatus fuero, fueris, &c, is also used. 



amatus, 

a,um 



104 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 109 

Pluperfect. 

essem, I monitus, a, urn, scriptus, a, um, auditus, a, urn, 
might have essem, &c. essem, &c. essem, &c. 

been loved. niinutus essem 

esses 
.esset 
amati, ^ssemus 
Q _ _ <essetis 
ae, a e . 

* essent 

Future wanting. 

C. Imperative, 

Present. 
(Ending in the First, Second, and Fourth Conj. re ; in the Third, ere.) 
Sing. 2 amare, be loved ! monere scribere audlre 

Plur. 2 amainini monemini scribimini audimini 

minuere, 
capere, &c. 

Future. 
(Ending in the First, Second, and Fourth Conj. tor; in the Third, itor.) 

Sing. 2 and 3 amator, be monetor scribitor auditor 

loved! 

Plur. 3 amantor monentor seribuntor audiuntor 

minuitor, 
capitor, &c. 

D. Infinitive. 

Present. 

(Ending in the First, Second, and Fourth Conj. ri ; in the Third, i.) 

amari, to be loved. moneri scribi audlri 

mimii, capi 

Perfect. 
Singular. 
N. amatus, a, um, monitus, a, um, scriptus, a, um, auditus, a, um, 
esse, to have been esse, &c. esse, &c. esse, &c. 

loved. minutus esse 

A amatum, am, um, 
esse 
Plural. 
N. amati, ae, a, esse 
A. amatos, as, a, esse 

Future. 1 

amatum iri monitum iri scriptum iri auditum iri 

minutum iri 



1 This tense is compounded of the supine and the passive form of the infinitive of eo, 
to go. (Amatum ire, in the active, to be going to love; hence, for the passive, amatum 
iri.) 



§ 110 DEPONENT VERBS. 105 

E. Participle, 

Perfect. 
(Ending us, affixed to the supine, after rejecting um.) 

amatus, a, um, loved, monitus scriptus auditus 

minutus 

Gerundive (Future). 

(Ending in the First and Second Conj. ndus ; in the Third and Fourth, endus.) 

amandus, a, um, that monendus scribendus audiendus 

is to be loved. 



CHAPTER XV. 

verbs with a passive form and active signification 
(deponent verbs). 

§ 110. Various verbs in Latin have a passive form with an active 
signification, in some cases transitive, in others intransitive : e.g. 
hortor, I exhort ; morior, I die. They are called Deponent verbs 
(literally, laying aside, from depono, because they lay aside the 
active form). 

Obs. 1. The form of the deponents is to be explained by the conside- 
ration, that the form, which is now passive, had not at first definitively and 
exclusively this signification. Some verbs, which are reckoned among 
the deponents, are, however, actual passives from active verbs in use, 
with a signification somewhat modified; e.g. pasci, to graze (intrans.), 
from pasco, to graze (trans., to lead to pasture), to fodder. Some 
verbs occur both as deponents and in the active form. See Chap. 
XXI. 

Obs. 2. The verbs audeo, I dare ; fido, I trust (confido, diffldo) ; 
gaudeo, I rejoice; soleo, I am accustomed, — have, in the participle 
perfect, an active signification, and form, with it, the perfect, and the 
tenses derived from it in a passive form, with an active signification ; 
ausus sum, fisus sum, gavisus sum, solitus sum; pluperf. indie, 
ausus eram ; subj., essem, &c. They are, therefore, half deponents. 
(Concerning fio, see § 160. Placeo, too, and some impersonal verbs of 
the second conjugation, have, in the perfect, a passive as well as an active 
form. See § 128, a, Obs. 1, and § 166.) A few others — e.g. rever- 
tor, I turn back — have a deponent form in the present, but an active 
form, on the other hand, in the perfect, — reverti. See, under verto, 
§ 139 ; and perio, § 145. 



106 LATIN GRAMMAR. §112 

Obs. 3. Some few active verbs, with an intransitive signification, have, 
notwithstanding, the perfect participle (but no other form) in the passsive, 
and this participle has then an active signification : e.g. juratus, one who 
has sworn, from juro, I swear (injuratus, one that has not sworn ; con- 
juratus, a conspirator, from conjuro) ; coenatus, one that has dined, 
from coeno, I dine. The others are adultus, cretus, coalitus, exole- 
tus, inveteratus, nupta, obsoletus, potus, pransus, svetus, each of 
which is introduced, with its verb, in Chaps. XVII., XVIII., XIX. 
More rare are conspiratus, from conspiro, I combine, co?ispire ; defla- 
gratus, from deflagro, to burn down (intrans.) ; placitus, accepted, 
approved of, from placeo. In Sallust, pax conventa, from pax con- 
venit. 1 

§ 111. The deponents are referred, according to their character- 
istic letters, to the four conjugations, and inflected according to the 
ordinary passive form of each conjugation. The supine and per- 
fect participle are formed from the stem, as in active verbs. Besides 
the supine, they have also the present and future participles in the 
active form, so that a deponent has three participles with an active 
signification for the three leading tenses. The future subjunctive 
and infinitive are compounded from the future participle as in active 
verbs. % 

The gerundive, unlike the other forms, retains a passive signifi- 
cation ; as, hortandus, that is to be exhorted. It is formed, there- 
fore, only from transitive deponents ; but the intransitives also have 
a gerund (with an active signification, § 97). 

Obs. The deponents pascor, vehor, versor, which are properly the 
passives of active verbs in use, have the participles, pasccns, vehens, 
versans, not only in the signification belonging to them in the active, 
but also in that which they have as deponents. 

§ 112. The following are examples of deponents of all four con- 
jugations in all tenses and moods. 

1 Consideratus, considered; and (as an adjective), considerate, circumspect. 



§112 



DEPONENT VERBS. 



107 



Indicative. 



Present. 



Imperf. 
Perfect. 

Pluperf. 
Future. 



I. CON J. 

hortor, I exhort. 
hortaris (re), &c, 

like amor 
hortabar 
hortatus, a, um, 

sum, es, &c. 
hortatus eram 
hortabor 



Fut. Perf. hortatus ero 



II. CONJ. 

vereor, I fear. 
vereris(e), &c, 

like moneor 
verebar 
veritus sum 

veritus eram 
verebor 
veritus ero 



III. CONJ. IV. CONJ. 

utor, I use. partior, I divide. 

uteris, &c, like partlris, &c., like 

s crib or audior 

utebar partiebar 

usus sum partitus sum 



usus eram 
utar 
usus ero 



partitus eram 
partiar 
partitus ero 



Present. 


horter 


Imperf. 


hortarer 


Perfect. 


hortatus sim 


Pluperf. 


hortatus essem 


Future. 


hortaturus sim 



Subjunctive. 



verear utar 

vererer uterer 

veritus sim usus sim 
veritus essem usus essem 
veriturus sim usurus sim 



partiar 
partlrer 
partitus sim 
partitus essem 
partiturus sim 



Present, hortare 
Future, hortator 



Imperative. 



verere 
veretor 



utere 
utitor 



partire 
partitor 



Infinitive. 



t. hortari 


vereri uti partlri 


t. hortatus ( a, urn) 


veritus esse, usus esse, &c. partitus esse, 


esse; hortatum 


&c. &c. 


(a, um) esse, &c. 




s. hortaturus (a, 


veriturus esse, usurus esse, partiturus 


um) esse, &c. 


&c. &c. esse, &c 



Supine. 



hortatum 


veritum 


usum 


partitum - 


hortatu 


veritu 


usu 


partitu 




Gerund. 






hortandum 


verendum 


utendum 


partiendum 



Participle. 



Present, hortans verens utens partiens 

Perfect, hortatus (a, um) veritus usus partitus 

Future, hortaturus (a, um) veriturus usurus partiturus 

Gerund, hortandus (a, um) verendus utendus partiendus 



108 LATIN GRAMMAR. § U4 

CHAPTER XVI. 

SOME PECULIARITIES IN THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

§ 113. a. In the perfect and the tenses formed from it in the 
first conjugation, if r or S follows ve, or vi, the V may be omitted, 
and a with the e or i contracted into a ; e.g. amarunt, amarim, 
amasti, aniasse, for amaverunt, amaverim, amavisti, amavisse. 
So, also, ve and vi may be dropped before r and s in perfects in evi 
(from irregular verbs of the second and third conj.), and in the 
tenses formed from them : e.g. flestis, nerunt, deleram, for flevis- 
tis, -neverunt, deleveram, decresse for deerevisse (from decerno) ; 
and in the perfects novi from I10SCO, and movi from moveo, with 
their compounds : e.g. nolim, nosse, commosse. (But always no- 
vero.) 

h. In the perfects in ivi and the tenses formed from them, v may 
be left out before e : e.g. definieram, qvaesierat, for definiveram, 
qvaesiverat, from definio, qvaero (perf. irregular qvaesivi) ; also 
before i, when followed by S, in which case ii in prose is almost 
always contracted into i : e.g. audissem, petisse (poetically peti- 
isse), sisti, for audivissem, petivisse, sivisti. More rarely (in 
the poets) v is left out before it (iit for ivit) ; e.g. audiit for au- 
divit. 

Obs. 1. The form iit occurs not unfrequently in petiit (peto), and is 
the only one used in desiit (desino), and in the compounds of eo; e.g. 
rediit. In these compounds, the form ii is also always used in the first 
person ; e.g. praeterii, perii. See, under eo, § 158. Otherwise, this is 
quite unusual (only petii, for petivi). 

Obs. 2. In the later poets, we find but rarely, for redii and petiit, 
the contracted form also redi, petit, although not followed by s. 

Obs. 3. In the perfects in si (xi), and the tenses formed from them, a 
syncope is sometimes admitted in archaic forms and by the poets (even 
Horace and Virgil) , when an s follows si, the i being omitted, and either 
one s or two dropped, according to § 10: e.g. scripsti, for scripsisti; 
abscenssem, for abscessissem ; dixe, consumpset, accestis, for dix- 
isse, consumpsisset, accessistis. 

§ 114. a. In the third person plural of the perf. indie, act, ere 
(rarely in Cicero) is also used for erunt (amavere, monuere, dix- 
ere, audivere), in which case the V cannot be omitted. In erunt 
the poets sometimes use the e short; e.g. steterunt (Virg.). 



§ 115 PECULIARITIES OF VERBS. 109 

b. In the second person singular in the passive (except in the 
present indicative), the termination re is very usual for ris (in 
Cicero it is the one most commonly used) ; in the pres. indie, (e.g. 
arbitrare, videre), it is rare, and confined almost entirely to depo- 
nent verbs. (In the third conjugation it is very seldom, ajid in the 
fourth never, used.) 

c. The verbs dico, I say ; duco, I lead ; facio, I do, make ; fero, / 
bring, — of the third conjugation, have, in the present imperative active, 
die, due, fac, fer, without e ; and, in like manner, the compounds of 
duco (educ), fero (affer, refer), and those of facio, in which the 
a remains unchanged (calefac, but confice ; see, under facio, § 143). 

Obs. Face sometimes occurs in the poets, more rarely duce and dice. 
From scio (4th con].), sci is unused, scite rare ; for these, we find the 
future scito, scitote. 

According to an older pronunciation, the gerundive, in the third and 
fourth conjugations, has also the termination undus, instead of endus; 
e.g. juri dicundo, potiundus. 

§ 115. Obsolete Fobms of Tenses, a. In the old language, and in 
the poets, the pres. inf. passive sometimes ends in ier, instead of i; e.g. 
amarier, scribier. 

b. The imperf. indie, active and passive, of the fourth conjugation, 
had sometimes, in the more ancient language, the terminations bam, bar, 
instead of ebam, ebar; e.g. scibam, largibar (from the deponent lar- 
gior). 

c. The future indie, active and passive, of the fourth conjugation, 
had sometimes, in the older style, the endings ibo, ibor, instead of iam, 
iar; e.g. servibo, opperibor (from the deponent opperior). 

d. In the present subj. active, we find an old termination, — im, 
is, it, — especially in the word edim, occasionally used for edam, from 
edo, / eat; and in duim, from the verb do, with its compounds, 
particularly in prayers and execrations ; di duint, di te perduint 
(Cic). | 

Obs. This termination was retained in sim, and in velim, nolim, 
malim (as in the subj. of the perf. and fut. perf.). 

e. The future imperative passive, in the second and third person singu- 
lar, was anciently formed also by affixing to the stem the ending mino 
(in the third conj. iniino) ; e.g. praefamino, from the deponent prae- 
fari, progredimino, from progredior. 

/. In place of the usual future, another was formed, in the older lan- 
guage, in the first, second (rare), and third conjugation, by affixing to 
the stem the ending so (in the first and second conjugation, sso) ; as, 
levasso (levo), prohibesso (prohibeo), axo (ago). In verbs of the 



110 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 116 

third conjugation in io, the i was dropped : capso, faxo, from capio, 
facio; and the same modifications were introduced, for the sake of eu- 
phony, as in the formation of perfects in si: e.g. adempso, from adimo 
effexo, from efficio, like effectum, because it is a close syllable. Those 
verbs of the second conjugation, which follow the third in the perfect, do 
so also in this : e.g. jusso, from jubeo (perf. jussi). From this future, 
there was formed a subjunctive in im (levassim, prohibessim, faxim) ; 
e.g. ne nos curassis, don't trouble yourself about us. The language, in its 
more refined state, retained from facio the fut. indie, faxo (in the first 
person, in the poets, in threats and promises), and the fut. subj. faxim 
(in wishes, as a pres. subj. f axis, faxit, faximus, faxitis, faxint) ; 
and, from audeo, the fut. subj. ausim (in doubtful assertions, I might 
venture, ausis, ausit, ausint). 

g. A participle is formed from some verbs, mostly intransitive 
(both active and deponent), by adding to the stem bundus (a, um), 
in the third conj. ibundus ; e.g. contionabundus, cunctabundus, 
deliberabundus (from contionor, cunctor, delibero), fiiribundus, 
moribundus (from faro, morior, 3d ; fremebundus, tremebundus, 
with e, from fremo, tremo ; pudibundus, from pudet, 2d). It has 
the signification of the present active. 

Obs. This participle is rarely found with an^ accusative ; e.g. vitabun- 
duscastra (Liv. XXV. 13). 

§ 116. By a combination of the participle future active and the 
participle perfect passive with the tenses of the verb sum, more 
expressions may be formed than those already given (which corre- 
spond to the several tenses of the indicative) to denote special rela- 
tions of time ; e.g. dicturus sum, I am he that will say=l am about 
to say ; dicturus eram, I was about to say ; positus fui, I have been 
placed. For the use and force of these combinations, see the Syn- 
tax, §§ 341-344, 381, and 409. 

Similar combinations are formed from the gerundive and sum, which 
express something as fitting, in the different moods and tenses ; e.g. 
faciendum est, or erat, it is (was)' to be done, it must be done, ouglit to 
have been done. See, on this subject, the Syntax, §§ 420, 421. 

All these combinations are comprised under the name periphras- 
tic conjugation. 



§118 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. HI 



CHAPTER XVII. 

OF THE IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES IN GENERAL, AND 
ESPECIALLY THOSE OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 

§ 117. Some verbs, though they have the perfect and supine 
(participle perfect) with the endings specified in § 103 and § 105, 
do not form them regularly from the stem, as found in the present, 
but after some change in the same ; e.g. fregi from frango (with 
the ending i, and lengthening of the vowel according to § 103, but 
with the omission of the n). To the stem so altered there is 
often affixed the ending of a conjugation different from that, to 
which the stem of the present belongs: e.g. juvo, I help ; juvare 
(1st), perfect juvi, with i, as if from a stem of the third conju- 
gation (juv) ; peto, I leg; petere (3d), perfect petivi, with vi, as 
if from a stem in i (4th), supine petltum ; so likewise seco, I 
cut; secare (1st), supine sectum, as if from a stem of the third 
conjugation (sec). When the perfect and supine (part, perf.) of 
these verbs are known, the other tenses, which are determined by 
these (§§ 104 and 106), are formed regularly from them. 

Compound verbs are declined like the simple (uncompounded) 
verbs from which they are derived. Those simple verbs, there- 
fore, which are irregular in the perfect and supine, are specially 
noticed below for each conjugation. Some want either both per- 
fect and supine, or the supine alone, and consequently those tenses 
also which are derived from them. 

§ 118. The deviation of the perfect and supine from the present has, 
inmost cases, arisen from the fact that, through the influence of pronunci- 
ation, the stem in use in the present has been enlarged from the original 
more simple stem. This increase consists most frequently either in the 
addition of a vowel after the final consonant (characteristic letter) of 
the stem: e.g. sona (pres. indie, sono, I sound, infin. sonare, 1st), in- 
stead of son (perf. sonui, sup. sonitum) ; ride (rideo, / laugh, 2d), 
instead of rid (perf. risi, sup. risum) ; veni (venio, I come, 4th), 
instead of ven (perf. veni, sup. ventum) ; or, in the insertion of the 
letter n, sometimes after a vowel : e.g. si-no, I permit (3d), perf. si-vi; 
sometimes before a consonant, in which case it may also be changed by 
the pronunciation to m (according to § 8) : e.g. frango, perf. fregi, 
rumpo, perf. rupi. 1 The stem of the present is reduplicated in gigno, 

1 The insertion takes a peculiar form in cerno, sperno, sterno ; perf. crevi, sprevi, 
stravi. 



112 LATIN GRAMMAR. §119 

(genui, genitum, from gen) and sisto. A peculiar increment of the 
stem is the terminal affix sco. See § 141. In consequence of this en- 
largement of the stem in the present, many verbs which there have the 
characteristics a, e, i (1st, 2d, 4th conj.), have a perfect and supine 
according to the form of the third conj. ; and some, of which the charac- 
teristic letter is a consonant in the present, form their perfect and supine 
as if from a stem ending in a vowel. In uro, gero (us-si, ges-si, us- 
tum, ges-tum), and some others, the stem in the present has not been 
lengthened, but varied, with a view to euphony. (In the perfect and 
supine of fluo, struo, veho, traho, vivo, we meet with a consonant, 
which, in the present, has either been rejected altogether, or weakened, 
as h, or appears in another form as v.) Some apparent irregularities 
in the perfect and supine arise only from the concurrence of the charac- 
teristic letter and the ending si, in the pronunciation. 

The supine sometimes exhibits a remarkable irregularity, in having 
turn (without any connecting vowel, not, as usual, ltum), where the per- 
fect has ui (§ 105, Obs. 2). 

Obs. It is to be remarked of the supine, that this form rarely occurs ; 
and the supines of many verbs are, consequently, not found in Latin 
authors ; but we have here considered them to be in use wherever the 
part. perf. passive, or the part. fut. active occurs, as these are moulded 
after the same form. 

§ 119. First Conjugation. In the first conjugation, the fol- 
lowing verbs (with their compounds) have, in the perfect and supine, 
ui, ltum. 

Obs. The compound verb annexed in each instance serves to familiar- 
ize the learner with the quantity of the radical syllable, when it is not 
long by position, and shows, at the same time, how the vowel is altered in 
the composition, if such a change takes place (according to § 5, c). 

Crepo (crepui, crepitum), to creak, make a noise. Discrepo. 

Ciibo, to lie. Accubo. 1 

Obs. When the compounds of cubo insert an m before b, — e.g. 
incumbo, — they are inflected according to the third conjugation, and 
acquire the signification to lay one's self (to pass over into the condition 
of lying) : e.g. accumbo, accumbere, accubui, accubitum ; accum- 
bit, he lays himself by ; accubat, he lies by. 

Domo, to tame. Perdbmo. 

Bono, to sound (part. fut. act. sonaturus, § 106, Obs. 2). Con- 
sono. 

Tono, to thunder. Attono (attonitus, as if struck by thunder, 
stunned). (Intono has, for its part., intonatus.) 

1 Incubavit for incubuit in Quinctilian. 



§ 121 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 113 

Veto, to forbid. 

Plico, to fold. It is found usually only in its compounds (applico, 
to apply; complico, to fold together; explico, to unfold; implico, to 
fold in, entangle ; replico, to unfold), —which have both ui, itum, and 
avi, atum. (Generally, the perfect has ui, the supine atum ; but ex- 
plico usually has explicavi, in the signification to explain ; and applico 
has applicavi. The simple plico is found only in the poets, without a 
perfect. The participle is plicatus.) 

§ 120. The following verbs have the terminations ui, turn : — 

Frico, to rub, fricui, frictum (but also fricatum). Perfrico. 

Seco, to cut. (Part. fut. active, secaturus, § 106, Obs. 2.) Dis- 
seco. 

Mico, to glitter, has micui, without a supine. Emico, emicui, emica- 
tum. Dimico, to fight, dimicavi, dimicatum. 

Eneco, from neco, to kill (necavi, necatum)" has both enecui, 
enectum, and enecavi. 

§ 121. The following should be separately noticed: — 

Do, to give, dedi (with the reduplication) , datum, dare. In this verb, 
the a of the stem is always short, except in da and das. So, also, the 
compounds, circumdo, to surround; venundo, to sell (venum, for sale) ; 
pessundo, to throw down (pessum, downwards, to the ground) ; satisdo, 
to give security (satis, enough) ; e.g. circumdedi, circumdatum. The 
remaining compounds (with prepositions of one syllable) are declined 
after the third conjugation. See § 133. (Duim, § 115, d.) 

Juvo, to help, juvi, jutum. (Part. fut. act. juvaturus, § 106, Obs. 2. 
Adjuvo.) 

Sto, to stand, steti, statum. The compounds change the e of the per- 
fect into i : e.g. praesto, to stand for (to give security), to perform, prae- 
stiti, praestatum ; persto, to persevere ; only those compounded with 
prepositions of two syllables (antesto. circumsto, intersto, supersto) 
retain e, — e.g. circumsteti, — but have no supine. Disto is without 
either perfect or supine. 

Lavo, to wash, bathe, without a perfect, which is borrowed from lavo, 
lavere, lavi, lautum (lotum), after the third conj.,the present of which 
is antiquated, and only used by the poets. (Lautus, lotus, washed, 
clean; lautus, splendid.) In the compounds, it takes the form luo, — 
e.g. abluo, — after the third conjugation (§ 130). 

Poto, to drink, potavi, potatum, and more often potum (potus, one 
that has drunk; § 110, Obs. 3). Epoto. 

8 



114 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 124 



CHAPTER XVHL 

THE IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES OF THE SECOND CON- 
JUGATION. 

§ 122. The following verbs affix vi and turn to the stem in the 
perfect and supine (as in the first and fourth conjugation) : — 

Deleo, to blot out, destroy, delevi, deleram, deletum. (Delesti, 
deleram, delesse, &c. ; see § il3, a.) 

Fleo, to weep. 

Neo, to spin. 

Pleo, to Jill, Used only in its compounds ; as, compleo, expleo, 
impleo, &c. 

Aboleo, to abolish (from the unused oleo, to grow), has abolevi, abo- 
litum. 

Obs. These verbs are, throughout, verba pura, as (with the exception 
abolitum) they have, everywhere, the vowel e as a characteristic letter 
before the ending. See § 101. 

§ 123. The verbs in veo have i in the perfect (with the radical 
vowel lengthened), turn in the supine. 

Caveo, to beware, cavi, cautum. Praecaveo (praecaves). 
Faveo, to favor, favi, fautum. 
Foveo, to cherish, foster, fovi, fotum. 

Moveo, to move, movi, motum. Commoveo (commoves). Com- 
mosti, commosse. See § 113, a. 

Voveo, to vow, to wish, vovi, votum. Devoveo (devoves) . 

The following want the supine : — 

Conniveo, to close the eyes x to close one eye, connivi, or connixi (both 
forms little used) . 

Ferveo, to glow, boil, fervi and (especially in the compounds) ferbui 
(Anciently fervo, fervere, 3d.) 

Paveo, to be afraid, pavi. 

§ 124. The following have the terminations ui in the perfect, 
and turn in the supine : — 

D6ceo, to teach, docui, doctum. DedSceo (dedbces). 

Teneo, to hold, tenui (tentum) . The supine and forms derived from 
it are little used, except in the compounds, detineo, obtineo, and re- 
tineo. Contentus (contineo) is used only as an adjective. 



§126 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 115 

Misceo, to mix, miscui, mixtum and mistum. 
Torreo, to dry up, burn, torrui, tostum. 

The following has ui and sum : — 

Censeo, to think, estimate, censui, censum. Accenseo. Recenseo, 
has, in the supine, both recensum and recensitum. 

§ 125. The following have i in the perfect, and sum in the su- 
pine (as in the third conjugation) : — 

Prandeo, to breakfast, prandi, pransum. (Pransus, one that has 
breakfasted; § 110, Obs. 3.) 

Sedeo, to sit, sedi, sessum. Assideo (assides). Compare sido, 
§ 133. (Circumsedeo and supersedeo, without a change of vow- 
els.) 

Possideo, to possess, or take possession of, possedi, possessum. 

Video, to see, vidi, visum. Invideo (to envy), invides; videor, 
to seem. 

Strideo, to hiss, whistle, stridi, without supine : also strido, stri- 
dere, 3d. 

So also, but with the reduplication, which is dropped in the com- 
pounds, — 

Mordeo, to bite, momordi, morsum. (Demordeo, demordi.) 

Pendeo, to hang, pependi, pensum. (Impendeo, to hang over, im- 
pend, impendi.) Compare pendo, 3d, to weigh, trans. 

Spondeo, promise, to become surety, spopondi, sponsum. (The 
compounds without reduplication, spondi; e.g. respondeo, to answer, 
respondi, responsum.) 

Tondeo, to shear, totondi, tonsum. Attondeo, to clip (attondi, 
attonsum) . 

§ 126. a. The following have si in the perfect, and turn in the 
supine : x — 

Augeo, to increase (trans.), auxi, auctum. 

Indulgeo, to be disposed to overlook, give one's self up (e.g. to a pas- 
sion), indulsi, indultum. 

Torqveo, to twist, torsi, tortum. 

b. The following have si in the perfect, and sum in the supine : — 

Ardeo, to burn (intrans.), arsi, arsum. 

Haereo, to adhere, hang fast, haesi, haesum. Adhaereo. 

Jubeo, to order, jussi, jussum. 

1 C, g, qv after r or 1, are dropped before s and t. 



116 LATIN GRAMMAR. §128 

Maneo, to remain, mansi, mansum. Permaneo (permanes). 

Mulceo, to stroke, mulsi, mulsum. 

Mulgeo, to milk, mulsi, mulsum. (The substantives mulctra, mulc- 
trum, and mulctral, a milk-pail, as if from mulctum.) 

Hideo, to laugh, risi, risum. Arrideo (arrides). 

Svadeo, to advise, svasi, svasum. Fersvadeo (persvades). 

Tergeo, to dry, to wipe, tersi, tersum. (Also tergo, tergere, 
3d.) 

c. The following have si in the perfect, without a supine : — • 

Algeo, to freeze, alsi. 

Frigeo, to be cold, frixi. 

Fulgeo, to shine, glitter, fulsi. (In the poets, fulgo, fulgere, 3d.) 

Luceo, to give light, shine, luxi. Eluceo (elucet). 

Lugeo, to mourn, luxi. (The substantive luctus, mourning,) 

Turgeo, to swell, tursi (very rare in the perfect) . 

Urgeo, to press, ursi. 

§ 127. The following must be separately noticed: — 

Cieo, to stir up, excite, civi, citum ; also, cio, cire, 4th, but always 
citum. 

Obs. In the compounds, — e.g. concieo, or concio, — the forms that 
follow the second conjugation are scarcely used, except in the pres. indie. 
Accire, to fetch, has, in the participle accitus, excire, both excitus and 
excitus. (Concitus is rare.) 

Langveo, to be languid, sick, langui, without supine. 

Liqveo, to be fluid, to be clear, liqvi, or licui, without supine. 

Also the half deponents (§ 110, Obs. 2), — 
Audeo, to dare, ausus sum. (Old fut. subj. ausim, § 115, f) 
Gaudeo, to rejoice, gavisus sum. 

Soleo, to be accustomed, solitus sum. Assolet (impers.), it is the 
custom. 

§ 128. a. Many of the remaining verbs of this conjugation 
(chiefly intransitive) have a regular perfect, but no supine: e.g. 
oleo, to smell, have a scent (redoleo, redoles) ; sorbeo, to sip. 
Those which have a supine, and are declined entirely like moneo, 
are the following : — 

Caleo, to be warm ; careo, to be without ; coerceo, to restrain ; and 
exerceo, to exercise (from arceo, arcui, to ward off) ; debeo, to owe, be 
obliged ; doleo, to be in pain, grieve ; habeo, to have (adhibeo, ad- 
hibes, &c.) ; jaceo, to lie (adjaceo, adjaces) ; liceo, to be on sale; 
mereo, to deserve (also mereor) ; noceo, to injure ; pareo, to obey 



§ 130 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 117 

(appareo, appares, to appear) ; placeo, to please (displiceo, displaces, 
to displease) ; praebeo, to afford ; taceo, to be silent (reticeo, retices, 
to be silent> to suppress) ; terreo, to frighten ; valeo, to be strong, to be 
able. 

Obs. 1. Placeo, however, has also, in the perfect (in the 3d person), 
placitus est. 

Obs. 2. In that portion of these verbs which is intransitive, the supine 
is known only from the fut. part. ; e.g. caliturus, cariturus. 

b. Some verbs (almost all intransitive) occur neither in the per- 
fect nor in the supine ; viz. : — 

Adoleo, to set fire to ; aveo, to covet, desire ; calveo, to be bald 
(calvus) ; caneo, to be gray-headed (canus) ; clueo, to be named; den- 
seo, to thicken, heap up (commonly densare, 1st) ; flaveo, to be yellow 
(flavus) ; foeteo, to be fetid ; hebeo, to be blunt (hebes) ; humeo, to be 
moist (humidus) ; lacteo, to suck (the breast) ; liveo, to be of a livid 
color (lividus) ; immineo, to bend over, threaten ; promineo, to jut out 
(emineo, eminui, to be prominent) ; moereo, to be sad; polleo, to bepoW" 
erful ; renideo, to glitter, smile ; scateo, to gush out ; sqvaleo, to be 
dirty (sqvalidus) ; vegeo (rare) , to stir up ; vieo (rare) , to plait. 
Others acquire a perfect when they assume the inchoative form (see 
§ 141) : e.g. areo, to be dry ; aresco, to become dry ; arui, / became 
dry. 

Obs. On the impersonal verbs of the second conjugation, see Chap. 
XXIV. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

PERFECTS AND SUPINES OP THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 

§ 129. The verbs of the third conjugation have various forms in 
the perfect and supine (see § 103 and 105) ; and are consequently 
all enumerated here, arranged according to the characteristic letter, 
so as to show to which form every (simple) verb belongs. 

§ 130. a. Verbs in uo have i in the perfect, and turn in the 
supine ; as, minuo, to lessen, minui, minutum. 

(So acuo, to sharpen ; imbuo, to steep, to imbue ; induo, to clothe, put 
on ; exuo, to put off; spuo, to spit ; statuo, to set up, determine ; ster- 
nuo, to sneeze ; suo, to seio ; tribuo, to impart.) In like manner, also, 



118 LATIN GRAMMAR. §131 

solvo, to loose, pay, solvi, solutum ; and volvo, to roll, volvi, volu- 
tum. 

6. The following want the supine : — 

Arguo, to accuse. (Argutus, adj., sharp, clever.) Coarguo. 

Batuo, to beat, fence, 

Luo, to expiate. 

Obs. Of the compounds which have the signification to wash, to 
rinse (see § 121), some have the participle perfect; viz., ablutus, 
dilutus, elutus, perlutus, prolutus. (Luiturus belongs to a late 
period.) 

Nuo, to nod. Used only in composition ; e.g. renuo. But abnuo 
has abnuiturus. 

Congruo, to meet, to agree ; and ingruo, to invade, impend over, 

Metuo, to fear. 

Pluo (pluit, it rains) . (The perfect is also written pluvi.) 

Ruo, to fall, throw down, generally intransitive, has the supine riitum 
(part. perf. riitus), but the part. fut. act. ruiturus (§ 106, Obs. 2). 
The compounds are partly transitive: as, e.g., diruo, part, dirutus; 
obruo, part, obrutus, partly intransitive : as, corruo, irruo. 

c. The following are irregular : — 

Fluo, to flow, fluxi, without a supine. (Fluxus, loose, slack; fluctus, 
a wave.) 

Struo, to heap up, build, struxi, structum. 
Vivo, to live, vixi, victum. 

§ 131. a. The verbs in bo and po have regularly si (psi), turn 
(ptum) ; viz. : — 

Glubo, to peel, glupsi, gluptum. Deglubo. 

Nubo, to marry (of women) . (Part, nupta, married.) Obnubo, to 
cover with a veil. 

Scribo, to write. Describe 

Carpo, to pluck. Decerpo. 

Clepo, to steal. (Rare, and antiquated.) 

Repo, to creep. Obrepo. 

Scalpo, to scratch, scrape, cut (with a chisel) ; and sculpo, to form 
(with the chisel). Properly, the same word; the compounds always 
have u (compare § 5, c) ; e.g. insculpo. 

Serpo, to creep. 

b. The following deviate from this rule : — 

Cumbo. The compounds of cubo, with m inserted (see § 119) ; 
e.g. incumbo, incubui, incubitum. 



§ 132 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 119 

Rumpo, to break, rupi, ruptum. 

Strepo, to make a noise, strepui, strepitum. Obstrepo. 

Bibo, to drink, bibi. Imbibo. ) 

Lambo, to lick. Lambi. >- without supine. 

Scabo, to scratch. ) 

§ 132. a. The verbs in CO (not sco), qvo, go, gVO, ho, have 
regularly si, turn (which with the characteristic letter becomes xi, 
ctum). 

Dico, to say, dixi, dictum. Praedico, to say beforehand. 

Duco, to lead, duxi, ductum. Adduce 

Coqvo, to cook, coxi, coctum. Concoqvo. 

Cingo, to surround, cinxi, cinctum. 

Fligo, to strike. Commonly used only in the compounds, affligo, to 
strike to the ground ; confligo, to fight ; infllgo, to strike (against some- 
thing). (Frofllgare, 1st, to beat to flight, overthrow, bring nearly to an 
end.) 

Frigo, to parch. (Supine also frixum.) 

Jungo, to join. 

Lingo, to lick. 

Emungo, to blow one's nose. 

Plango, to beat (plango and plangor, to beat one's self for sor- 
row). 

Rego, to direct, manage. Arrigo, corrigo, erigo, porrigo, subrigo. 
But pergo, to go on (from per and rego), has perrexi, perrectum; and 
surgo, to rise (from sub and rego), surrexi, surrectum. Adsurgo, 
adsurrexi, adsurrectum. 

Sugo, to suck. Exsugo. 

Tego, to cover. Contego. 

Tingo, tingvo, to dip. 

Ungo, ungvo, to anoint. 

(Stingvo), to extinguish, rare. Exstingvo, restingvo, to extinguish; 
dis tingvo, to distinguish. 

Traho, to draw, traxi, tractum. Contraho. 

Veho, to carry (trans.). (Vehor, as a deponent, to drive or ride 

(intrans.) ; in vehor, to attack.) 

Ango, to vex, anxi (rare in the perfect). ) 

*.. , . .^ . x N . . , . ' s > without supine. 

Ningo (ningit, it snows), ninxi (nmxit). ) x 

Clango, to resound, without perf. or sup. 

b. The following deviate from this rule : — 
Fingo, to form, invent, finxi, fictum. 

Mingo, minxi, mictum. (In the present, more frequently mejo, 
me j ere.) 



120 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 132 

Pingo, to paint, pinxi, pic turn. 

Stringo, to graze, touch lightly, draw tight together, strinxi, 
strictum. 

Mergo, to immerse, mersi, mersum. (Emergo, to come to the sur- 
face (intrans.), but in the perf. part, emersus; comp. § 110, Obs. 3). 

Spargo, to scatter, sprinkle, sparsi, sparsum. Conspergo. 

Tergo, to wipe, tersi, tersum. (Also tergeo, 2d.) 

Vergo, to incline, without perfect or supine. 

Ago, to drive, egi, actum. Adigo, adegi, adactum (abigo, exigo, 
subigo, transigo) ; but perago (peregi, peractum) and circumago. 
Ambigo, to doubt ; dego, to pass (aetatem) ; satago, to be busy, without 
perfect and supine. (Degi belongs to a late period.) Prodigo (to drive 
forth), spend, without supine. Cogo, to drive together, force ; coegi, 
coactum. 

Obs. Age (pres. imp.), comenow ! addressed also to several ; age, con- 
siderate ; though we also find agite so used. 

Frango, to break in pieces, fregi, fractum. Confringo, confregi, con- 
fractum. 

Ico (icio?), to strike, conclude (foedus), ici, ictum. (Of the 
pres. indie, icit, icitur, icimur, alone are found; the only forms in 
general use are ici, ictus, and icere; ferio is used instead of the 
present.) 

Lego, to collect, choose, read, legi, lectum. Allego, to choose in addi- 
tion ; perlego, to read through ; praelego, to read aloud ; and relego, to 
read again (without a change of the vowel), allegi, allectum, &c. ; col- 
ligo, to collect ; deligo, eligo, seligo, to choose out ; collegi, collectum, 
&c. ; but diligo, to love, has dilexi, dilectum ; and so also intelligo 
(intellego), to understand, andnegligo (neglego), to neglect. 

Linqvo, to leave, liqvi, (lictum). Relinqvo, reliqvi, relictum, is 
more common. 

Vinco, to conquer, vici, victum. 

Figo, to fasten, fixi, fixum. Affigo. 

Farco, to spare, peperci (parsi, rare) , parsum. Comparco and com- 
perco, comparsi. 

Fungo, to prick, pupugi, punctum. The compounds have punxi in 
the perfect ; e.g. interpungo. 

Fango, to fasten, panxi, and pegi (panctum, pactum). In the sig- 
nification, to fix (in the way of agreement) , it has, for its perfect, pepigi, 
sup. pactum ; but, in this sense, the deponent paciscor is always used 
in the present. Compingo, compegi, compactum, and impingo. 
Oppango, oppegi, oppactum. 

Tango, to touch, tetigi, tactum. Attingo, attigi, attactum ; con- 
tingo (contingit, contigit, impers., it falls to one^s share). 



§ 133 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 121 

§ 133. a. The verbs in do have regularly si, sum, with the omis- 
sion of the d : — 

Claudo, to shut, clausi, clausum. Conclude 

Divido, to divide, divisi, divisum. 

Laedo, to injure. Collido, to strike together, &c. 

Ludo, to play. Colludo. 

Plaudo, to clap the hands. Applaudo. The remaining compounds 
have plodo ; as, explodo, to drive off the stage. 

Rado, to scrape. Corrado, to scrape together. 

Rodo, to gnaw. Arr5do. 

Trudo, to thrust. Extrudo. 

Vado, to go, step, without perfect or supine. But invado, invasi, in- 
vasum, and so also evado, pervado. 

b. The following are exceptions : — 

Cedo, to yield, cessi, cessum. Concede 

(Cando, unused.) Accendo, to set on fire, accendi, accensum. So 
also incendo, succendo. 

Cudo, to forge on the anvil, cudi, cusum. Excudo. 

Defendo, to defend, ward off, defendi, defensum. So also offendo, 
to insidt, strike against. 

Edo, to eat, edi, esum. Comedo. (On the peculiar irregularity in 
some forms of this verb, see § 156.) 

Fundo, to pour, fudi, fusuno. Effundo. 

Mando, to chew, mandi (rare) , mansum. 

Prehendo, to lay hold of, prehendi, prehensum. (Also prendo.) 

Scando, to climb, scandi, scansum. Ascendo, &c. 

Strido, to hiss, whistle, stridi, without supine. (Also strideo, 2d.) 

Riido, to roar, bray, rudivi (rare), without supine. 

Findo, to cleave, split, fidi, fissum. Diffindo (diffidi). 

Frendo, to champ, gnash the teeth, without perfect, fressum and fre- 
sum. (Also frendeo, 2d.) 

Pando, to spread out, pandi, passum (rarely pansum). Expando. 
(Dispando has only dispansum.) 

Scindo, to tear, scidi, scissum. Conscindo, conscidi, conscis- 
sum, &c. Abscindo and exscindo (excindo) are not used in the 
supine, — exscindo not even in the perfect. (In its stead, we find ab- 
scisus, excisus, from abscido, excido ; see caedo.) 

Sido, to seat one^s self, sedi (rarely sidi), sessum. Assido (adsido), 
assedi, assessum, &c. (Compare sedeo, 2d.) 

Cado, to fall, cecidi, casum. Concido, concidi (without redupl. 
and without supine), &c. (Of the compounds, only occido and re- 
cido have a supine, occasum, recasum ; rarely incido.) 



122 LATIN GRAMMAR. §134 

Caedo, to fell, beat, cecidi, caesum. Concido, concidi, conci- 
sum, &c. 

Fendo, to weigh, pependi, pensum. Appendo, appendi, appen- 
sum, &c. (Suspendo, to hang up.) (Compare pendeo, 2d.) 

Tendo, to stretch, tetendi, tensum, and tentum. Contendo, con- 
tend^ contentum, &c. (The compounds generally have tentum; 
extendo, retendo, both tentum and tensum ; detendo, to slacken, take 
down (tabernacula) ; ostendo, to show, only tensum. Substant. 
ostentum ; ostentus = obtentus, stretched out before, spread out.) 

Tundo, to beat, pound, tutudi, tusum and tunsum. Contundo, con- 
tiidi, con tusum (rarely contunsum), &c. 

Credo, to believe, credidi, creditum. Accredo, accredidi, accre- 
ditum. 

Do. All the compounds of do, dare (1st conj., § 121), with prepo- 
sitions of one syllable, are inflected after the third conjugation ; as, addo, 
addere, addidi, additum (condo, trado, &c). 

Obs. The doubly compounded abscondo (abs and condo) has, in 
the perfect, abscondi (rarely abscondidi). From vendo, to sell, the 
passive participle venditus, and the gerundive vendendus are in use, 
but otherwise its passive is supplied in good writers by the verb veneo 
(see § 158). So, likewise, pereo (see eo, § 158) is generally used, 
instead of the passive of perdo, to destroy, to lose (except perditus, per- 
dendus, and the compound forms) . 

FIdo, to trust, fisus sum (a half-deponent). Confido, connsus 
sum ; diflido. 

§ 134. a. The verbs in lo have ui, turn (Itum) : — 

Alo, to nourish, alui, altum (and alitum). 

Colo, to till, cherish, colui, cultum. Excolo. 

Consulo, to consult, care for, consului, consultum. 

Occulo, to conceal, occului, occultum. 

Molo, to grind, molui, molitum. 

Excello, to excel, distinguish one's self, perf. excellui (rare), with- 
out supine ; antecello, praecello, without perfect or supine. (Also, 
excelleo, antecelleo.) 

b. The following are excepted : — 

Fallo, to deceive, fefelli, falsum. Refello, to refute, refelli, without 
supine. 

Pello, to drive away, pepiili, pulsum. Expello, expuli, expul- 
sum, &c. 

Fercello, to strike down, perciili, perculsum. 

Fsallo, to play on a stringed instrument, psalli, without supine. 

Velio, to tear, velli (rarely vulsi), vulsum. Convello, to tear away, 



§ 136 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 123 

convelli, convulsum, &c. Only avello and evello have also (but 
rarely) avulsi, evulsi. 

Tollo, to raise up, take away, has sustiili, sublatum (with the prepo- 
sition sub ; the supine from another stem ; see, under fero, § 155). 
Extollo, without perfect or supine. 

§ 135. Verbs in mo : — 

Como, to adorn, compsi, comptum. 

Demo, to take away, dempsi, demptum. 

Promo, to take out, prompsi, promptum. 

Sumo, to take, sumpsi, sumptum. 

Obs. The other way of writing these verbs, without p (sumsi, sum- 
turn) is not so correct. The p has been inserted with a view to 
euphony. 

Fremo, to roar, murmur, fremui, fremitum. Adfremo. 

Gemo, to sigh, gemui, gemitum. Congemo. 

Vomo, to vomit, vomui, vomitum. Evomo. 

Tremo, to tremble, tremui, without supine. 

Emo, to buy, emi, emptum (less correctly, emtum). Coemo, coemi, 
coemptum. The remaining compounds have i, instead of e, in the pres- 
ent ; as, adimo, to take away, ademi, ademptum (dirimo, to separate; 
exlmo, interimo, perimo, redimo). 

Premo, to press, pressi, pressum. Comprimo, compressi, com- 
pressum, &c. 

§ 136. Verbs in no: — 

Cano, to sing, cecini. Of the compounds, concino, occino (also 
occano), and praecmo, have, for their perfects, concinui, occinui, 
praecinui; the others (accmo, &c.) want this tense. (Substantive, 
cantus, song, concentus, &c. Canto, cantare.) 

Gigno, to beget, genui, genitum. 

Pono, to put, posui, positum. Compono. (Poetical contraction j 
postus, compostus, for positus, compositus.) 

Lino, to smear, anoint, levi (Hvi), litum. Oblino, oblevi, obli- 
tum, &c. 

Obs. The later writers use the form linio regularly according to the 
fourth conjugation. (Circumlinio, Quinc.) 

Sino, to permit, sivi, situm (situs, situated) . Desino, to leave off, 
desivi (desisti, desiit, desieram, &c, without v; § 113, b, Obs. 1), 
desitum. (For desitus sum, see, under coepi, § 161.) 

Obs. In the perfect subjunctive of sino, i and e are contracted into I, 
sirim, siris, sirit, sirint. (Not in desierim.) 

Cerno, to sift, decide, crevi, cretum. Decerno, &c. In the signifi- 
cation to see, to look, cerno has neither perfect nor supine. 



124 LATIN GRAMMAR. §138 

Sperno, to despise, sprevi, spretum. 

Sterno, to throw to the ground, strew, cover, stravi, stratum. Con- 
st erno, to cover, constravi, constratum, &c. 

Obs. In the perfect, and the tenses derived from it, the rejection of 
the v, and contraction, as in the first conjugation, occur but seldom ; e.g. 
prostrasse, strarat. 

Temno, to despise, tempsi, temptum ; most usually contemno, con- 
tempsi, contemptum (less correctly, contemsi, coutemtum). 

§ 137. Verbs inro: — 

Gero, to carry, perform, gessi, gestum. Congero. 

TJro, to burn (trans.), ussi, us turn. Aduro, adussi, adustum, &c. 
(amburo, exuro, inuro), but comburo, to burn up, combussi, com- 
bustum (from an older form of the stem) . 

Curro, to run, cucurri, cursum. The compounds sometimes retain 
the reduplication in the perfect (accucurri), but generally lose it (ac- 
curri). 

Fero, to bear, carry, tuli, latum. See § 155. 

Fiiro, to rave, without perfect or supine. 

Qvaero, to seek, qvaesivi, qvaesitum. Conqviro, conqvisivi, con- 
qvisitum, &c. 

Obs. In the first person, singular and plural, of the present indicative, 
the old form, qvaeso, qvaesumus, is used to give the style a coloring of 
antiquity, or as a parenthesis {pray I). 

Sero, to plait, put in rows, serui, sertum. The perfect and supine 
of the simple verb are not in use (only the neuter plural of the part, per- 
fect passive serta, garlands of flowers, wreaths), but those of the com- 
pounds are so ; as, consero, conserui, consertum. (Insero, exsero, 
desero, to forsake; dissero, to develop.) 

Sero, to sow, sevi, satum. Consero, consevi, consitum, &c. (In- 
sero, to graft, intersero, to sow amongst.) l 

Tero, to rub, trivi, tritum. Contero, &c. 

Verro, to sweep, verri, versum. 

§ 138. Verbs in so (xo) : — 

Viso, to visit, visi, without supine. Inviso. (From video.) 
Depso, to knead, depsui, depstum. 

Finso, to pound, pinsui and pinsi, pinsitum and pinsum. (Also, 
piso, pistum.) 

Texo, to weave, texui, textum. 



1 Conseruisset for conservisset in Livy is an error of the transcribers. 



§ 140 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 125 

Those in esso have ivi, Itum ; viz. : — 

Arcesso, or accerso, to send for, arcessivi, arcessitum (accersivi, 
accersitum). In the infin. pass., sometimes arcessiri. 

Capesso, to take in hand. (A lengthened form of capio, § 143.) 
Facesso, to make, cause, intrans., to retire. (From facio, § 143.) 
Lacesso, to provoke. (From the unused lacio, § 143.) 
Incesso, to attack, incessivi, without sup. (The perfect, in the ex- 
pressions timor, cura, &c, incessit homines, animos, is from incedo, 
although the present of the latter verb is not used in that significa- 
tion.) Incepisso, to begin, without perf. and sup. (Archaic, from in- 
cipio.) 

Petesso, to seek, without perf. and sup. (Archaic, from peto.) 



§ 139. Verbs in to: — 

Meto, to mow, reap, messui (rare), messum. Demeto. 

Mitto, to send, misi, missum. 

Peto, to beg, seek to obtain, petivi (petii, petiit; § 113, b, Obs. 1), 
petitum. Appeto. 

Sisto, to place, set up, stiti (rare), statum (adj. status, fixed) ; rarely 
in an intransitive signification, to remain standing, place one's self, and 
then in the perfect steti (from sto, 1st, from which sisto has been formed 
by reduplication). Desisto, destiti, destitum, &c. (Consisto, ex- 
sisto, insisto, resisto, all invariably intransitive.) Circumsisto alone 
has circumsteti, from circumsto. 

Sterto, to snore, stertui, without supine. 

Verto, to turn, verti, versum. In like manner, the compounds 
(adverto, whence animadverto, averto, &c.) . The intransitives dever- 
tor, to put up ; and revertor, to return, — are deponents in the present, 
and the forms derived from it (reverto is very rare) ; in the perfect, on 
the contrary, they are active verbs, de verti, reverti (more rarely rever-* 
sus sum and the participle reversus). Praeverto, to be beforehand 
toith, surpass, has a deponent form in the intransitive signification, to 
attend to a thing (above every thing else), but otherwise very seldom. 

Flecto, to bend, flexi, flexum. 

Necto, to tie, nexi and nexui (both rare) , nezum. 

Pecto, to comb, pexi and pexui (both rare), pexum. 

Plecto, to punish, without perfect or supine. In the signification 
to plait, we find only the part. perf. passive, plexus (compound im- 
plexus). 

§ 140. Verbs in SCO. They are partly those in which the SCO 
belongs to the stem, and is retained in the inflection ; partly those 



126 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 141 

in which SCO is a prolongation of the stem, and is dropped in the 
perfect and supine. 

Of the first kind are (all without supine), — 

Compesco, to confine, compescui. 
Dispesco, to separate, dispescui. 

Disco, to learn, didici. Addisco, addidici (with redupl.), &c. 
Posco, to demand, poposci. Deposco, depoposci (with the re- 
dupl.), &c. 

§ 141. SCO is a prolongation of the stem in the inchoative verbs, 
which are derived either from a verb (inchoativa verbalia), or 
from a noun (inchoativa nominalia), most frequently an adjective, 
to denote the commencement of a state (see § 196). The inchoa- 
tiva verbalia have the perfect of the verbs from which they are 
derived; e.g.: — 

Incalesco, incalui, from caleo, calui; ingemisco, ingemui, from 
gemo, gemui ; deliqvesco, delicui, from liqveo, liqvi, or licui. Some 
of those inchoativa nominalia, which are derived from adjectives of the 
second declension, have a perfect in ui (without a supine) : as, matu- 
resco, to ripen, maturui, from maturus ; obmutesco, to grow dumb, 
obmutui, from mutus; percrebresco, to grow frequent (creber), per- 
crebrui (by some written percrebesco, percrebui). (So, likewise, 
evilesco, to become worthless, evilui, from vilis.) Irraucesco, to grow 
hoarse (raucus), irrausi, is irregular. The others, derived from adjec- 
tives in is, with many of those from adjectives in us, have no perfect ; e.g. 
ingravesco. (Vesperascit, the evening comes on, and advesperascit, 
have vesperavit, advesperavit ; consenesco, to become old, con- 
senui.) 

Obs. Some few inchoatives have also the supine of their stems ; 
viz. : — 

Coalesce- (alesco, from alo, 3d), to grow together, coalui, coalitum 
(in the part. perf. coalitus, grown together) . 

Concupisco, to desire, concupivi, concupitum. (Cupio, 3d.) 

Convalesco, to become strong, healthy, convalui, convalitum. 
(Valeo, 2d.) 

Exardesco, to take fire, exarsi, exarsum. (Ardeo, 2d.) 

Inveterasco, to grow old, inveteravi, inveteratum (part. perf. in- 
veteratus, rooted). (From vetus ; also, invetero.) 

Obdormisco, to fall asleep, obdormivi, obdormitum. (Dormio, 
4th.) 

Revivisco, to come to life again, revixi, revictum. (Vivo, 3d.) 



§ 143 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 127 

§ 142. Some verbs are lengthened with SCO, but have lost their 
inchoative signification, or are formed from stems which are no 
longer extant, so that they are considered as simple, underived 
verbs. These are the following : — 

Adolesco, to grow up, adolevi. So also abolesco, to disappear, 
cease ; exolesco, to disappear, grow old ; inolesco, obsolesco. (From 
the unused oleo, to grow.) From adolesco comes the adjective adul- 
tus, grown up, from exolesco, exoletus, from obsolesco, obsoletus, 
obsolete. (Compare, aboleo, § 122.) 

Cresco, to increase, crevi, cretum. Concresco, &c. (Part. perf. 
cretus, and particularly concretus.) 

Fatisco, to crack (grow languid), without perfect or supine. (Fes- 
sus, weary, adjective. Defetiscor, to grow weary, defessus sum, 
deponent.) 

Glisco, to grow, spread, without perf. or sup. 

Hisco, to open the mouth, without perf. or sup. 

Nosco, to become acquainted with, inform one's self concerning, novi, 
no turn. The perfect signifies, I have made the acquaintance of, I know ; 
the pluperfect, i" knew. Notus is only an adjective (known), and the 
fut. part, is not in use. (On the contraction, nosti, norim, see § 113, a.) 

Of the compounds (from the old form gnosco), agnosco (adgnosco), 
to recognize; cognosco, to become acquainted ivith (recognosco), 
— have agnitum and cognitum in the supine; ignosco, to pardon, has 
ignotum. The remaining (dignosco, internosco) have no supine. 

Pasco, to feed (cattle) , pavi, pastum. (Pascor, as a deponent, to 
graze.) Depasco. 

Qviesco, to rest, qvievi, qvietum. 

Svesco, to accustom one^s self, svevi, svetum. (Part. perf. svetus, 
accustomed. Archaic present, svemus, from sveo. The compounds 
have sometimes a transitive signification : e.g. assvesco, to accustom 
one's self, and to accustom one ; generally, however, we'find assvefacio, 
in the transitive signification. Mansvetus, tame.) 

Scisco, to order, ratify (a law), scivi, scitum. (From scio.) 

§ 143. Verbs with an i inserted after the characteristic letter. 
(The perfect and supine are formed from the stem without i.) 

Capio, to take, cepi, captum. Concipio (concipis), concepi, con- 
ceptual, &c. 

Facio, to make, do, feci, factum. (Old fut. indie, faxo; subj., 
faxim ; § 115, f.) Fio serves for a passive in the present, and the 
tenses formed from it ; see § 160 ; but the participles (factus, facien- 
dus) and the compound forms are from facio. So also the compounds 



128 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 143 

with verbal stems : e.g. calefacio, to make warm, calefeci, calef actum, 
calefio ; patefacio, patefeci, patefactum, patefio ; l and with adverbs : 
e.g. satisfacio, to give satisfaction, satisfeci, satisfactum, satisfit. 
The compounds with prepositions alter the vowel, and are declined like 
perficio, perfeci, perfectum, in the passive (regularly) perficior. (But 
conficio sometimes has confieri in the passive as well as conficior. 
See § 160, Obs. 1.) 

Jacio, to throw, jeci, j actum. Abjicio (abjicis), abjeci, abjec- 
tum, &c. 

Obs. At an earlier period, the compounds were generally spoken and 
written with one i ; e.g. abicio, disicio. In the poets, eicit, reice, dis- 
syllables, and ejicit, rejiciunt. Porricio, archaic, to offer in sacrifice, 
has no perfect. 

Cupio, to wish, cupivi, cupitum. 

Fodio, to dig, fodi, fossum. ESodio, effodis. 

Fiigio, to flee, fugi, fugitum. Aufugio, aufugis. 

Lacio, to entice, whence lacto, lactare, to make sport of one. It 
is used only in compounds ; allicio, to entice, allexi, allectum ; so also 
illicio, pellicio ; but elicio, to draw out, has elicui, elicitum. (Proli- 
cio is not found in the perfect and supine.) 

Pario, to bring forth, peperi, partum. (Part. fut. act. pariturus ; 
§ 106, Obs. 2.) 

Qvatio, to shake (qvassi, unused), qvassum. Concutio, concussi, 
concussum; percutio, &c. 

Rapio, to snatch, take away by force, rapui, raptum. Arripio, ar- 
ripui, arreptum, &c. 

Sapio, to taste, have taste, understanding (sapivi), without sup. De- 
sipio, to be foolish, without perf. 

Obs. The inchoative resipisco, to become wise again, has resipivi and 
resipui. 

Specio, to look, whence specto, spectare. Used only in the com- 
pounds ; aspicio, to behold, aspexi, aspectum ; conspicio, &c. 



1 Some of these, however, have no other passive forms than those deduced from facio; 
e.g. tremefacio, tremefactus. 



§145 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 129 



CHAPTER XX. 

THE IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES OF THE FOURTH CON- 
JUGATION. 

§ 144. The following verbs have si, turn (one has sum), as in 
the third conjugation : — 

Farcio, to stuff, farsi, fartum (farctum). Refercio, refersi, refer- 
tum, &c. 

Fulcio, to prop, fulsi, fultum. 

Haurio, to draw (water), hausi, haustum. (Part. fut. hausturus 
and hausurus.) Exhaurio. 

Sancio, to ratify, sanxi, sancitum, and oftener sanctum. 

Sarcio, to patch, sarsi, sartum. Resarcio. 

Sentio, to feel, think, sensi, sensum. Consentio, &c. Assentio ia 
oftener used as a deponent, — assentior, assensus sum. 

Saepio (sepio), to fence, saepsi, saeptum. Obsaepio. 

Vincio, to bind, fetter, vinxi, vinctum. 

§ 145. The following have other irregularities: — 

Amicio, to clothe, amictum. Not used in the perfect. 

Cic, civi, citum. See cieo, § 127. 

Eo, to go, ivi, ltum. See § 158. 

Ferio, to strike, without perfect or supine. 

(Perio ?) Aperio, to open, uncover, aperui, apertum ; so also operio, 
to cover over, and cooperio. 

(Perio ?) Reperio, to find, repperi (reperi), repertum ; so also 
comperio, to learn, comperi, compertum. (Rarely, with a deponent 
form in the present, comperior.) 

Salio, to leap, salui (rarely, and not in the first person, salii). 
DesHio, desilui (rarely desilii), &c. (The substantives saltus, de- 
sultor.) 

Sepelio, to bury, sepelivi, sepultum. 1 

Venio, to come, veni, ventum. (Convenio.) 

Some intransitive verbs derived from adjectives want the perfect and 
supine: e.g. superbio, to be proud; caecutio, to be blind (see § 194, 
Obs. 2; but saevio, and the transitives — as, mollio — are complete). 
These forms are also wanting in those verbs in urio, which denote an 
inclination (verba desiderativa ; see § 197); e.g. dormiturio, to be 
sleepy. (From esurio, however, we have esuriturus in Terence.) 

i Perf. first person sepeli (from sepelii ; § 113, 6, Obs. 1 and 2) in Persius. 

9 



130 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 143 



CHAPTER XXI. 

THE IRREGULAR SUPINES (PARTICIPLES) OF THE DEPONENTS, 
AND SOME OTHER IRREGULARITIES OF THESE VERBS. 

§ 146. In some deponents the supine or participle perfect (whence 
the perf. ind., &c., are formed by composition) varies from the pres- 
ent in the same way as in the active verbs. 

Obs. The supine itself occurs but seldom in the deponents. The perf. 
part with sum (perf. indie.) is here named instead of it. 

In the first conjugation, to which by far the greater part of the 
deponents belongs, thay are all inflected regularly. 

Obs. 1. In ferior, to keep holiday, be idle; and operor, to busy one's 
self with, — the perfect participle has a present signification; feriatus, 
idle, unoccupied ; operatus, busied. The same also generally holds good 
of arbitratus, and some others. 

Obs. 2. Concerning the derivation of the deponents which follow the 
first cenj., see § 193, 6. 

§ 147. a. Of some deponents of the first conjugation, the active form 
is also occasionally, or even frequently, found in good writers ; e.g. popii- 
lor, to lay waste, and populo. The most important of these, including 
populor, are : altercor, to dispute (alterco, Ter.) ; auguror, to foretell; 
comitor, to accompany (comito, poet.) ; conflictor, to struggle (con- 
flict©, Ter.) ; fabricor, to make ; feneror, to lend at interest ; luctor, to 
wrestle (lucto, Ter.) ; ludificor, to make sport of, to banter ; muneror, 
to present ; remuneror, to recompense ; oscitor, to yawn ; palpor, to 
stroke, flatter; stabulor, to be in the stall, have one's station. The 
active form of many others is here and there met with in the older 
writers. 

b. On the other hand, some verbs of the first conjugation, which have 
most commonly the active form, are used, by some particular authors, as 
deponents; e.g. fluctuo, to fluctuate; also, fluctuor (Liv.). Further 
examples of such verbs are : bello, to make war (bellor, Virg.) ; commu- 
nico, to communicate (communicor, Liv.) ; elucubro, to ivork out (elu- 
cubror, Cic.) ; frutico, to shoot out branches (fruticor, Cic.) ; luxurio, 
to be luxuriant ; murmuro, to murmur (commurmuror, Cic.) ; opsono, 
to buy food (opsonor, Ter.) ; velifico, to set sail (velificor, Cic, to work 
for, to favor). 

§ 148. In the second conjugation the following deponents vary 
from the usual formation : — 



§ 149 IRREGULARITIES OF THE DEPONENTS. 131 

Fateor, to confess, fassus sum. Confiteor, coufessus sum, &c. 
(Dimteor, to deny, without part, perf.) * 

Reor, to think, ratus sum, without part. pres. 

Medeor, to heal, without part. perf. 

Misereor, to have pity on, has, in most cases, the regular perfect mise- 
ritus sum, more rarely misertus sum. (Of miseretur as an imper- 
sonal, see § 166, 6.) 

Tueor, to protect (look at), (tuitus sum). Part. fut. tuiturus. In- 
stead of the unused perfect, we find tutatus sum, from tutor. The per- 
fect of contueor, intueor, contuitus sum, intuitus sum, is rare. (An 
archaic form is tuor (3d), whence the adjective tutus.) 

Obs. The regular deponents of the second conjugation are : liceor, to 
bid for ; mereor, to deserve (also in the active form mereo) ; l polli- 
ceor, to promise ; vereor, to fear, 

§ 149. To the third conjugation belong the following deponents, 
which may be arranged like the actives according to their char- 
acteristic letters : (fungor is declined like the passive of cingo, 
patior like that of qvatio, qveror, qvestus, like that of gero, 
gestum, &c.) 

Fruor, to enjoy, fruitus and fructus sum (both rare) ; part. fut. frui- 
turus. 

Fungor, to perform, functus sum. 

Gradior, to step, go, gressus sum. Aggredior, aggressus sum, 
&c. 

Labor, to slide, fall, lapsus sum. Collabor, &c. 

Liqvor, to melt (intrans.), to flow away, without part. perf. 

Loqvor, to speak, locutus sum. Alloqvor. 

Morior, to die, mortuus sum. Part. fut. moriturus. Emorior. 

Nit or, to lean, exert one's self, nixus or nisus sum. Adnltor. (Em- 
tor, to bring forth young, enixa est.) 

Patior, to suffer, passus sum. Perpetior. 

(From plecto, to plait, to twist, § 139.) Amplector, complector, 
to embrace, amplexus sum, complexus sum. 

Qveror, to complain, qvestus sum. Conqveror. 
Ringor, to show one's teeth, without part. perf. 

Seqvor, to follow, seciitus sum. Conseqvor. 

Utor, to use, usus sum. Abutor. 

(Verto, revertor, &c, see § 139.) 



1 Mereo is chiefly used of what is gained by trading and of military service ; merere 
stipendia, m. eqyo ; on the other hand, we generally have bene, male mereri ; in the 
perf., also in this signification, chiefly merui ; but in the participle meritus (bene meri- 
tus). 



132 LATIN GRAMMAR. §151 

§ 150. Further, the following in scor (see § 141) : — 

* 
Apiscor, to obtain, aptus sum. Adipiscor, adeptus sum, is more 

usual. (Indipiscor, indeptus sum.) 

Defetiscor, to grow weary, defessus sum. (From fatisco, § 142.) 

Expergiscor, to awake (intrans.), experrectus sum. Obsolete par- 
ticiple, expergitus. 

Irascor, to grow angry (from the subst. ira), without perf. Iratus 
(adj.), angry, iratus sum, 1 am angry. {I grew angry, is expressed by 
succensui or suscensui, from succenseo or suscenseo. ) 

Meniscor. Comminiscor, to devise, commentus sum. Remin- 
iscor, to remember, without part. perf. 

Nanciscor, to obtain, nanctus and nactus sum. 

Nascor, to be born, natus sum. Part. fut. nasciturus. Enascor. 
(The adjectives agnatus, cognatus, prognatus, from a form gnas- 
cor.) 

Obliviscor, to forget, oblitus sum. 

Paciscor, to make an agreement, pactus sum. Compaciscor or com- 
peciscor, compactus or compectus sum. Pepigi, from the stem 
pango (§ 132), is also used for the perfect. 

Proficiscor, to travel, profectus sum. 

Ulciscor, to revenge, ultus sum. 

Vescor, to eat, without part. perf. 

§ 151. In the fourth conjugation the following deponents vary 
from the regular form : — 

Assentior, to agree, assensus sum. See sentio, § 144. 

Experior, to try, experience, expertus sum. (Compare comperio, 
§ 145.) 

Metior, to measure, mensus sum. 

Ordior, to begin (trans.), orsus sum. 

Opperior, to wait for, oppertus (opperitus) sum. 

Orior, to rise, ortus sum. Part. fut. oriturus. (The gerundive ori- 
undus, with the signification, descended.) 

Obs. 1. In the present indicative, the form of the third conjugation is 
used, — oreris, oritur, orimur; in the imperf. subj., both orirer (4th) 
and orerer (3d). (From adorior, adoriris, adoritur, are in use.) 

Obs. 2. The regular deponents of the fourth conjugation are : blan- 
dior, to flatter ; largior, to present ; mentior, to lie ; molior, to move, 
undertake ; partior, to divide (rarely partio ; but dispertio, impertio 
(impartio), are more usual than dispertior, impertior) ; potior, to ob- 
tain ; sortior, to take by lot ; punior, to punish (in Cicero, elsewhere we 
usually find punio) . 



§ 154 IRREGULAR VERBS. 133 

Obs. 3. From potior, the poets, and some prose-writers, occasionally 
use, in the present indicative, potitur, potimur ; and, in the imperf. subj., 
poterer, &c, after the third conjugation. 

§ 152. Those deponents, of which the active form is in use, some- 
times receive a passive signification : as, comitor, 1 am accompanied ; 
fabricantur, they are made ; populari, to be laid waste, — but particu- 
larly the part. perf. : e.g. comitatus (in all writers), elucubratus, fa- 
bricatus, populatus, meritus. 

§ 153. A few rare instances are met with of other deponents in a pas- 
sive signification : e.g. in Cicero, adulor, aspernor, arbitror, dignor, 
criminor ; in Sallust, ulciscor. Of some deponents, the participle per- 
fect only is used, by good writers, in a passive signification also; 
abominatus, adeptus, auspicatus, amplexus, complexus, com- 
mentus, commentatus, confessus, despicatus, detestatus, eblan- 
ditus, ementitus, expertus (inexpertus), exsecratus, interpre- 
tatus, ludificatus, meditatus (praemeditatus), mensus (dimensus), 
metatus (dimetatus), moderatus, opinatus (necopinatus), pactus, 
partitus, perfunctus, periclitatus, stipulatus, testatus, ultus (inul- 
tus, unavenged), with some others in the poets, and second-rate 
writers. 1 



CHAPTER XXII. 

IRREGULAR VERBS (VERBA ANOMALA). 

§ 154. Those verbs are termed irregular, which vary from the 
usual form, not only in the formation of the perfect and supine, 
but also in the endings of the tenses, and the mode in which they 
are combined with the stem. An example of one such verb, sum, 
has already been adduced. The others are now given. 

Possum, to be able, is inflected in the following manner : — 



INDICATIVE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Present. 


possum 


possim 


potes 


possis 


p6test 


possit 


possumus 


possimus 


potestis 


possitis 


possunt 


possint 



1 In the fut. imperat. we sometimes meet with utito, tuento, &c, for utltor, tuentor. 



134 LATIN GRAMMAR. §155 

Imperfect. 

poteram, as, at possem, es, et 

poteramus, atis, ant possemus, etis, ent 

Perfect. 

potui, isti, it potuerim, is, it 

potuimus, istis, erunt potuerlmus, Itis, int 

Pluperfect. 

potueram, as, at potuissem, es, et 

potueramus, atis, ant potuissemus, etis, ent 

Future. 

potero, is, it Wanting 

poterimus, itis, unt wanting. 

Future Perfect. 
potuero, is, it potuerim, is, it 

potuerlmus, Itis, int potuerlmus, itis, int 

nSTFIIflTIVE. 
Pres. posse Perf. potuisse. Fut. Wanting. 

The Imperative is wanting. The participle present potens is only 
used as an adjective, powerful. 

Obs. Possum is compounded of potis (or properly pot) and sum 
(possum from potsum) . Anciently and by the poets it was expressed 
by potis es, est, sunt (potis being invariable in gender and number) 
for potes, potest, possunt : in common language also simply pote for 
potest. For possim, possis, possit, there was also an obsolete form 
possiem, &c. (siem) ; potesse for posse. 

§ 155. Fero, to carry, after the third conjugation, borrows its 
perfect and supine, tuli, latum, from other stems. In some of the 
forms derived from the present, the connecting vowel between the 
stem and ending is omitted, in the manner following : — 

Active. Passive. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present. 

fero, fers, fert feror, ferris, fertur 

ferimus, fertis, ferunt ferimur, ferimini, feruntur 



§156 IRREGULAR VERBS. 135 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Imperfect. 
ferrem, ferres, ferret ferrer, ferreris, ferretur 

ferremus, ferretis, ferrent ferremur, ferremini, ferrentur 

IMPEBATIVE. 
Present, fer, ferte - ferre, ferimini 

Future. 2, 3 ferto 2, 3 fertor 

fertote, ferunto 3 feruntor 

INFINITIVE. 
Present, ferre ferri 

The remainder is regular (imp. ind. act. ferebam,pass. ferebar; plup. 
tuleram, tulissem; fut. perf. tulero, from tuli, &c). In the same way 
are declined the compounds (in which the prepositions before fero, tuli, 
latum, are modified according to § 173) : e.g. afiero, attuli, allatum; 
offero, obtiili, oblatum. Aufero, from ab-fero, has abs-tuli, ablatum; 
refero, rettuli (retuli), relatum. Sufifero, to carry, bear, has rarely 
sustuli in the perfect : instead of this sustinui is employed ; and sustuli, 
sublatum, are used for the perfect and supine of tollo, to lift up 
(§ 134). Differo, to put off, spread out, has distuli, dilatum; but in 
the intransitive signification, to differ, it has neither perfect nor supine. 

§ 156. The verb edo, to eat, edi, esum, of the third conjugation 
(§ 133), in addition to the regular inflection, has also shorter forms 
in the present indicative, imperfect subjunctive, the imperative, and 
present infinitive, agreeing exactly in form with those parts of the 
verb sum which begin with es ; viz. : — 

Active. 
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Imperfect. 

edo, edis, edit ederem, ederes, ederet 

es, est essem, esses, esset 

edimus, editis, edunt ederemus, ederetis, ederent 

estis essemus, essetis, essent 

IMPEBATIVE. INFINITIVE. 

Present, ede, edite Pres. edere 

es, este esse 

Future, edito, editote 
esto, estote 
edunto 



136 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§157 



In the passive, estur is found for editur, and essetur for ederetur. 1 
The same abridged forms are also used in the compounds ; e.g. comes, 
comest, comesse, for comedis, comedit, comedere, from comedo. 

§ 157. Volo, I will; nolo, / will not (from ne volo) ; malo, / 
had rather (from mage, i.e. magis, volo), — are declined as fol- 
lows: — 

INDICATIVE. 
Present. 



volo 


nolo 


malo 


vis 


non vis 


mavis 


vult (volt) 


non vult 


mavult 


volumus 


nolumus 


malumus 


vultis (voltis) 


non vultis 


mavultis 


volunt 


nolunt 

Imperfect. 


malunt 


volebam 


nolebam 


malebam 


volebas, &c. 


nolebas, &c. 
Perfect. 


malebas, &c. 


volui, &c. 


nolui 

Pluperfect. 


malui 


volueram 


nolueram 
Future. 


malueram 


volam 


(nolam, unused) 


(malam, unused) 


voles, &c. 


noles, &c. 
Future Perfect. 


males, &c. 


voluero 


noluero 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present. 


maluero 


velim 


nolim 


malim 


velis 


noils 


mails 


velit 


nolit 


malit 


velimus 


nolimus 


malimus 


velitis 


nolitis 


malitis 


velint 


nolint 


malint 



1 The shorter forms have been produced by the omission of the connecting vowel and a 
modification of the letters ; the e in these is pronounced as long by nature. 



§158 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



137 



vellem 
velles, &c. 



voluerim 



voluissem 



voluerim 



Imperfect. 

nollem 
nolles, &c. 

Perfect. 
noluerim 

Pluperfect. 

noluissem 

Future Perfect. 
noluerim 



mallem 
malles, &c. 



maluerim 



maluissem 



maluerim 



IMPERATIVE. 

Wanting. Pres. Sing, noli ; Plur. nolite Wanting. 

Fur. Sing. 2, 3 nolito; Plur. 2 nolitote 

3 nolunto 
ZOTFIltflTIVE. 
Present, velle nolle malle 

Perfect, voluisse noluisse maluisse 

PARTICIPLE. 
Present, volens nolens Wanting. 

Obs. The following are obsolete forms : nevis, nevult, nevelle, for 
non vis, non vult, nolle ; mavolo, mavelim, mavellem, for malo, 
malim, mallem. From si vis, si vultis, annexed to a command or 
request (pray, if you please), originated in familiar language, and the 
style intended to imitate it, the expressions sis, sultis : Vide, sis, ne 
qvo abeas (Ter.) Refer animum sis ad veritatem (Cic. pro Rose. 
Am. 16) . Facite, sultis, nitidae ut aedes meae sint (Plaut.) . 

§ 158. The verb eo, to go, ivi, ltum, of the fourth conjugation, 
is thus inflected in the present and the forms derived from it : — ' 

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

eo, is, it earn, eas, eat 

imus, itis, eunt eamus, eatis, eant 

Imperfect. 
ibam, ibas, ibat irem, ires, iret 

ibamus, ibatis, ibant iremus, iretis, irent 

Future. 
ibo, ibis, ibit iturus, a, um, sim, &c. 

ibimus, ibitis, ibunt 



138 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 159 

IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. 

Pres. Sing, i! Plur. ite! Pres. ire 

Fut. Sing. 2 and 3 Ito ; Plur. 2 Itote 

3 eunto 

PARTICIPLE. 
Present, iens, euntem, euntis, &c. 
Gerund, eundum. 

The rest is regularly formed from Ivi (iveram or ieram, ivisse, 
isse, &c.) and ltum (lturus, iturus esse). Eo being an intransitive 
verb, the passive can only be. formed in the third person (impersonally, 
§ 95, Obs.) ; viz., Itur, ibatur, ibitur, ltum est, &c., eatur, iretur. 

In like manner are inflected the compounds, which usually have ii, 
not ivi, in the perfect; e.g. abii, redii (§ 113, b, Obs. 1). Some of 
them (adeo, ineo, praetereo) take a transitive signification, and these 
form a complete passive, thus : Ind. pres. adeor, adiris, aditur, 
adlmur, adimini, adeuntur ; imperf. adibar, &c. ; fut. adibor, 
adiberis, &c. : Subj. pres. adear, &c. ; imperf. adirer, &c. ; Imperat. 
pres. adire, fut. aditor, plur. adeuntor: Infin. pres. adiri; part. perf. 
aditus ; gerundive, adeundus, a, urn. 

From eo comes also veneo (venum eo), to be put up for sale, be 
sold, which is used as the passive of vendo (§ 133), and inflected like 
the other compounds. (In the imperf. indie, sometimes veniebam.) 

Ambio, to go about, is the only compound which is regularly in- 
flected according to the fourth conjugation ; e.g. participle present, 
ambiens, ambientem, ambientis. (The imperfect is sometimes ambi- 
bam. 1 ) 

§ 159. ftveo, to be able ; and neqveo, — to be unable, are inflected 
like eo, but without imperative, future participle, or gerund (queo, 
quis, &c. ; queunt, queam, &c. ; quibam, quirem, quivi, quive- 
rim; or, quierim, quivisse, or quisse, &c). 

Obs. 1. The part. pres. also scarcely occurs in ordinary language ; 
and qvibam, qviveram, qvibo, neqvibo, are obsolete and rare forms. 
Qvis and qvit, in the pres. indie, are used only with non (non qvis 
and non qvit for neqvis and neqvit) ; in general qveo is used only in 
negative propositions, and far more rarely than possum. 

Obs. 2. In the older style a passive form was sometimes used where 
an infinitive passive was subjoined : forma nosci non qvita est (Ter.) ; 
ulcisci (pass.) neqvitur (Sail.). Compare coeptus sum, § 161. 

1 The irregularity in eo consists in the radical vowel i being changed into e before a, O, 
and u, and in its having in the imperf. and fut. indie, the form in bam (for ebam) and bo 
(§ 115, 6. c). 



§ 161 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 139 

§ 160. Fio, to become, be done, answers as a passive to the verb 
facio (§ 143), from which it borrows the perf. part., the gerundive, 
and the compound tenses. 

The remainder varies only slightly from the regular inflection : — 

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

fio, fis, fit fiam, fias, fiat 

(flmus, fitis), fiunt fiamus, fiatis, fiant 

Imperfect. 
fiebam, fiebas, &c. fierem, fieres, &c. 

Future. 
fiam, fies, &c. Wanting. 

IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. 

Pres. Sing, fi ; Plur. fite Pres. fieri 

(Factus sum, eram, ero, sim, essem, factum esse, factum in.) 

Obs. 1. For the compounds, see under facio. Confieri has only 
confit, confiat, confieret (3 pers.) ; defieri, to be wanting, only defit, 
defiunt, defiat. 

Obs. 2. In this verb (contrary to the general rule), the vowel i is long 
before another vowel, except in fieri, fierem. 



CHAPTER XXm. 
defective verbs. 

§ 161. Several verbs are not completely inflected in all the forms 
of which their signification would allow. Those which want the 
perfect or supine have been already specified. Some of the irregu- 
lar verbs are at the same time defective. This chapter contains 
those verbs especially which want the present, or are only used in a 
very few isolated forms. 

The verbs coepi, / began ; memini, / remember (commemini) ; 
and odi, I hate, — are not used in the present, and the tenses derived 
from it. The perfect of memini and odi has the signification of a 
present, the pluperfect that of an imperfect, and the future perfect 
that of a future. These verbs are thus inflected : — 



140 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§162 



INDICATIVE. 

Perf. coepi, coepisti, &c. memini, &c. odi, &c. 

Plup. coeperam memineram oderam 

Fut. Perf. coepero meminero odero 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Perf. coeperim meminerim oderim 

Plup. coepissem meminissem odissem 

Fut. Perf. (same as perf.) 

IMPERATIVE. 
Wanting. Fut. Sing. 2 memento Wanting. 

Plur. 2 mementote 



Perf. coepisse 



INFINITIVE, 
meminisse 



odisse 



PARTICIPLE. 

Wanting 



(osus, obsolete) 

osurus. 



Perf. Pass, coeptus 
Fut. Act. coepturus 

Obs. From osus, which has an active signification, we find the com- 
pounds, exosus, per osus, hating. 

Coepi is found also in the passive, coeptus sum, which is joined to 
a passive infinitive : e.g. urbs aedificari coepta est ; but we may also 
say aedificari coepit. (In the same way also desitus est is used, from 
desino, to cease (§ 136) : e.g. Veteres orationes legi sunt desitae, 
Cic. ; but also desii: e.g. bellum jam timeri desierat, Liv.) 

Obs. Incipio (incepi, inceptum, from capio) serves for a present 
of coepi, and more rarely occipio (occepi, occeptum). Incipio 
facere, coepi facere (less frequently incepi 1 ) . 

§ 162. a. Ajo, to say, say yes, is used in the following forms : — 

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

ajo, ais, ait — ajas, ajat 

— — ajunt — — ajant 

Imperfect. 
ajebam, ajebas, &c. 
(In Plautus and Terence, aibam.) 



1 Coepi with the accusative of a substantive is rare, incipio common (incipere oppug- 
nationem ; proelium incipitur, Sail. Jug 74) ; but we find in the passive ludi coepti 
sunt (Liv.), and the participle (opus coeptum) is not uncommon. 



§163 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



141 



PARTICIPLE. 
Present, ajens (adj., affirmative) 
Obs. The Imperative ai is quite obsolete. 

b. Inqvam, I say, is used in the following forms : — 

INDICATIVE. 
Present. Imperfect. 

inqvam, inqvis, inqvit — — inqviebat 

inqvimus, inqvitis, inqviunt 



Future. 
inqvies, inqviet 



Perfect. 
— inqvisti, inqvit 

IMPERATIVE (rare). 

Pres. Sing, inqve Fut. Sing. 2 inqvito 

Obs. This verb is used only when a person is introduced, speaking in 
his own words, and is inserted after one or more words of the speech 
cited ; e.g. Turn ille, Nego, inqvit, verum esse, I deny, said he, that it 
is true. Potestne, inqvit Epicurus, qvicqvam esse melius ? In- 
qvam is also used, in narrations, as a perfect. 

c. Infit, he begins, is used only in the third person of the present 
indicative, either alone, signifying, begins to speak, or with an infinitive, 
usually one which implies speaking; e.g. laudare, percontari infit 
(Archaic and poetical. Perhaps from fari.) 

§ 163. Fari, to speak (a deponent of the first conjugation), with 
its compounds (affari, effari, praefari, profari), is used in the fol- 
lowing forms (but those within brackets are found only in the 
compounds) : — 

rNDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 
— — fatur Wanting, 

(famur, famini) 



Imperfect. 



(fabar) 



(farer, &c.) 



Perfect. 
fatus sum, &c. fatus sim, &c 

Pluperfect. 
fatus eram, &c. fatus essem, &c. 

Future. 
fabor (faberis), fabitur Wanting. 



142 LATIN GRAMMAR. §165 

IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. SUPINE (second). 

Pres. Sing, fare Pres. fari fatu 

PARTICIPLE. 
Present. fantem, fantis, &c, without nominative. 
Perfect. fatus, a, um. 
Gerund. fandi, fando. 

Gerundive, fandus, a, um (e.g. fanda atqve nefanda). 
Obs. The simple verb fari is antiquated, and used chiefly by the 
poets. 

§ 164. Salveo, to be safe, uninjured, is used only in salutations; 
in the imperative, salve, hail! plur. salvete (fut. sing, salveto) ; 
in the infinitive, in the construction salvere (te) jubeo, 1 bid you 
welcome; and in the fut. indie, salvebis (in written salutations). 
In the same signification we find the imperative ave (have), hail! 
good day ! plur. avete, fut. sing, aveto ; rarely avere jubeo. (Aveo 
means, 1 am inclined, have a desire ; § 128, b.) 

An old imperative is apage (artay 8 = abige), away with! apage te, 
pack yourself off! away with you ! (Also simply apage, away /) 

As an imperative, we find also the very unusual form, cedo, give me ! 
(cedo librum), out with it! tell me ! (cedo, qvid faciam). In the plu- 
ral (obsolete), cette. 

Obs. Besides the verbs here given, there are others, of which one 
or two forms are not found, because there was but seldom occasion for 
their use, — e.g. solebo and solens, from soleo, — and their sound 
was, perhaps, also disagreeable, as in dor, der, deris, from do. From 
the verb ovo, to rejoice (used especially of a victorious procession, less 
important than a triumph) , we commonly find only the participle ovans, 
— -in the poets also ovat (ovet, ovaret). 



CHAPTER XXIV. ' 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

§ 165. Those verbs are called impersonal which are used only 
in the third person singular, and have usually no reference to a sub- 
ject in the nominative. 

Obs. Besides those verbs which are exclusively impersonal, some, 
which are otherwise personal, are used impersonally in certain signi- 
fications ; e.g. accidit, it happens, from accido. See the Syntax, 
3 218. 



§167 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 143 



§ 166. The following verbs are impersonal: — 

a. Those which indicate the weather : e.g. ningit, it snoivs ; pluit, it 
rains ; grandinat, it hails ; also, the two inchoatives, lucescit (illu- 
cescit), it grows light, the day dawns ; and vesperascit (advesperas- 
cit), the evening comes on, 

b. The following verbs of the second conjugation : — 

Libet, it pleases, libuit and libitum est (half-deponent). Col- 
libet. 

Licet, it is permitted, licuit and licitum est. 

Miseret (me), (i) pity, without perf. ; also, miseretur, miseritum 
est. 

Obs. Misereor is also used personally. Miseror, miserari, generally 
signifies, to compassionate (in words). 

Oportet, it is right, necessary ; oportuit. 

Piget, it vexes ; piguit and pigitum est. 

Poenitet (me), (I) repent; poenituit. 

Pudet, it causes shame (p. me, I am ashamed) ; puduit and pudi- 
tum est. 

Taedet, it is irksome, causes vexation (taedet me, I am weary of it) , 
without a perfect ; instead of which the compound, pertaesum est, is 
made use of. 

Obs. The verbs decet, it becomes, befits, decuit, and dedecet, it is 
unbecoming, are, properly speaking, not impersonal, because they may 
refer to a definite subject and occur in the plural (omnis eum color 
decet, parva parvum decent) ; but yet they are used only in the third 
person, inasmuch as they can be predicated neither of the speaker nor 
the person addressed. 

c. Refert, it is of importance; retulit (from fero; distinguished 
from refer o by the quantity). 

§ 167. The impersonal verbs (and those which are sometimes 
used impersonally) are inflected regularly in the several forms, in 
conformity with the present and perfect, but their signification does 
not allow them to have an imperative, a supine, or a participle 
(except that in some verbs the perf. part. pass, neuter is combined 
with est, &c). Oportet has therefore, in the indicative, oportet, 
oportebat, oportuit, oportuerat, oportebit, oportuerit ; in the sub- 
junctive, oporteat, oporteret, oportuerit, oportuisset, oportuerit ; 
in the infinitive, oportere, oportuisse. But libet, licet, poenitet, 
pudet, have participles somewhat varied in their meaning and 
application. 



144 LATIN GRAMMAR. §168 

Obs. Iiibens, willing, with pleasure ; licens (adj.),/rce (unbridled) ; 
licitus, allowed; liciturum est, liciturum esse (imperat. liceto). 
Pudens (adj.), modest (pudibundus, bashful) ; poenitens (rare), 
penitent ; poenitendus, to be repented of; pudendus, what must cause 
shame. Hence as a gerund (as from personal verbs), ad poenitendum, 
pudendo. 

Concluding Observations on the Inflection of the Verbs. 

§ 168. In order to avoid mistakes, the beginner must take par- 
ticular notice that some verbs, the meaning and inflection of which 
are totally different, are alike in the first person of the present 
indicative ; as, — 

aggero, to heap up, 1st Conj. (in aggero, to bring to, 3 (from gero). 

prose usually, exaggero) ; 

appello, to name, 1 ; appello, to land, 3 (pello). 

compello, to address, call, 1 ; compello, to drive together, 3 (pello). 

colligo, to bind together, 1 (ligo) ; colligo, to colled, 3 (lego), 

consterno, to confuse, terrify, 1 ; consterno, to cover over, 3 (sterno). 

effero, to make wild, 1 ; effero, to carry out, 3 (fero) . 

fundo, to found, 1 ; fundo, to pour, 3. 

mando, to give in charge, 1 ; mando, to chew, 3. 

obsero, to bolt up, 1 ; obsero, to sow, 3. 

salio, to dance, salui, saltum, 4 ; salio, to salt, salivi, salitum, 4. 

volo, to fly, 1 ; volo, to wish; irreg. 

Others are distinguished by a difference in the quantity of the 
radical vowel ; as, — 

colo, to till, to take care of, 3 ; colo, to strain, 1. 

dico, to dedicate, 1 ; dico, to say, 3. 

indico, to inform of; praedico, indico, praedico. 
to declare; 
educo, to educate, 1 ; educo, to lead out, 3 (duco). 

lego, to read, collect, 3 ; lego, to send as a deputy, bequeath, 1. 

allego, to choose in addition ; allego, to send a deputy, to cite as 

proof 
relggo, to read again ; relego, to banish: 

Some other verbs, of the second and third conjugations, have, as is 
seen in Chaps. XVIII. and XIX., the same form in the perfect or supine 
and the tenses formed from them; e.g. victurus, from vinco and from 
vivo. (Oblitus, smeared, from oblino; oblitus, one who has forgotten, 
from obliviscor.) 



§ 170 ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 145 

CHAPTER XXV. 

ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 

§ 169. Adverbs have no inflection except comparison. Gener- 
ally speaking only those adverbs can be compared which are derived 
from adjectives and participles which are themselves compared, with 
the terminations e (o) or ter (see § 198). The comparative of the 
adverb is then the same with that of the adjective in the nom. neut., 
and the superlative of the adverb is formed like that of the adjec- 
tive, but with the ending e instead of US ; e.g. : — 

docte (doctus), doctius, doctissime; aegre (aeger), aegrius, 
aegerrime; fortiter (fortis), fortius, fortissime ; acriter (acer), 
acrius, acerrime; audacter (audax), audacius, audacissime; 
amanter (amans), amantius, aniantissime ; facile (facilis), facilius, 
facillime. 

Obs. Tuto makes in the sup. tutissimo ; and merito, meritissimo, 
quite according to one y s deserts. 

§ 170. If the comparison of the adjective be irregular or defec- 
tive, that of the adverb is so in the same way ; e.g. : — 

bene (bonus), melius, optime; male (malus), pejus, pessime; 
multum (the neuter of the adjective, used as an adverb), plus, 
plurimum (the same) ; parum, little, too little (parvus), minus, 
minim e (minimum, in expressing a measurement ; minimum distat, 
minimum invidet, Hor.) ; deterius (deterior), deterrime ; ocius 
(ociorj, ocissime ; potius (potior), potissimum ; prius (prior), 
primum and primo (properly the ace. and abl. neuter) ; nove (novus), 
novissime. 

The following should be particularly noticed: magis (compar. 
more), maxime, which has no positive, although magnus, from which it 
is derived, is compared throughout ; and uberius, uberrime, from uber. 
Valde, very strongly (for valide, from validus), has validius (rarely 
in the poets, valdius), validissime. 

Obs. The adverbs which denote a mutual relation of place, and 
from which adjectives are formed in the comparative and superlative 
(§ 66), have a corresponding comparison as adverbs : prope, propius, 
proxime ; intra, interius, intime ; ultra, extra, post, — ulterius, 
exterius, posterius, — ultimum or ultimo, &e. (particularly pos- 
tremum and postremo) ; supra, superius, summe (in the highest 
degree), summum (at the highest), supremum, at last, for the last 

10 



146 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 172 

time (rare) ; citra and infra have only citerius, inferius, without a 
superlative. 

§ 171. Of other adverbs, only the following are compared: — 

Diu, long ; diutius, diutissime. 
Nuper, lately ; nuperrime, without a comparative. 
Saepe, often ; saepius, saepissime. 

Secus, otherwise, ill ; secius (non, nihilo secius, no less, neverthe- 
less) . 

Temperi (tempori), betimes; temperius. 

§ 172. The Latin language has the following Prepositions, to 
denote the relation between substantives : — 

I. Those constructed with the Accusative. 

Ad, to, on (close by, ad manum) . 

Adversus, adversum, against. (Rarely exadversus, opposite, 
also an adverb.) 

Ante, before. 

Apud, at or with. 

Circa, circunl, round, round about. (Circum amicos, urbes^ 
insulas, to the friends, in the towns, in the islands round about.) 

Circiter, towards, about (of time; circiter horam octavam). 

Contra, opposite, against (in a hostile sense). 

Cis, citra, on this side of. 

Erga, towards (generally of a friendly way of feeling or acting). 

Extra, outside of. 

Infra, beneath, below. 

Inter, between, among. 

Intra, inside of, within. 

Juxta, near, by. 

Ob, before (ob oculos) , on account of. 

Penes, with, in the hands or power of any one. 

Per, through. 

Pone, behind. 

Post, after, behind. 

Praeter, beyond, except. (Praeter ceteros, before the others.) 

Prope, near by. 

Propter, near, on account of. 

Supra, on the upper side of, above. 

Secundum, next to, according to. 

Trans, on the other side of. 

Ultra, on the other side of, beyond. 



§172 ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 147 

II. Those which are constructed with the Ablative* 

Ab, a, from. (Ab is always used before vowels, and often before 
consonants, a only before consonants; before te, abs is also used, abs 
te. 1 ) 

Absqve, without (archaic ; absqve te si esset, if it were not for 
you). 

Coram, before, in presence of. 

Cum, with. 

Obs. Cum is put after and joined to the personal, reflective, and 
relative pronouns ; mecum, nobiscum, secum, qvocum, qvacum, 
qvibuscum. It may, however, be prefixed to the relative and inter- 
rogative pronouns (especially in the poets) ; e.g. cum qvo, cum 
qvibus. (Mecum et cum P. Scipione.) 

De, of from (down from), concerning. 

Ex, e, out of. (Ex, before vowels and consonants, e only before 
consonants.) 

Prae, before, in comparison with, on account of. (Prae lacrimis, 
for tears; prae me beatus, in comparison with me.) 

Pro, before, for. 

Sine, without. 

Tenus, up to (is put after its case : pectore tenus) . 

Obs. Tenus sometimes takes the genitive; e.g. crurum tenus 
(Virg.). 

III. Those constructed with the Accusative or Ablative. 

In, in, on (abl.) ; but ace. in answer to the question whither. 
Sub, under ; abl. in answer to the question where. 
Subter, beneath, on the under side of, usually the ace. 
Super, concerning (abl.) ; above, on the upper side of (ace). 

On the construction of these four prepositions, further particulars 
will be given in the Syntax (§ 230). 

Obs. 1. For the particular ways of employing the remaining preposi- 
tions, and their application in certain idioms and phrases, the dictionary 
must be consulted. The idiom of the Latins, in consequence of a differ- 
ent way of conceiving the relations of things, is very often different 
from our own ; e.g. when it is said in Latin, initium facere ab aliqva 
re, and not cum. (Hence, also, Ave find, Unde initium faciam?) 

Obs. 2. Some prepositions are also used as adverbs, the name of the 
person or thing referred to not being specified: viz., coram (personally, 



1 In the use of ab and ex before consonants writers vary from each other, and are not 
always even consistent with themselves. 



148 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 173 

face to face) ; ante {before, previously, antea) ; circa, circiter, contra, 
extra, infra, intra, juxta, pone, post (behind, afterwards, postea), 
prope (near), propter (in the neighborhood), supra, ultra, subter, 
super. (In antiquated style, i prae! go first! ire adversum, to go to 
meet.) (Ad is used as an adverb, with numerals, in the signification, 
about, without any influence on the case ; e.g. ad duo milia et qvin- 
genti, Liv. IV. 59. Praeter is sometimes used in the signification, 
except, with the same oblique case which precedes ; e.g. Caeterae multi- 
tudini diem statuit praeter rerum capitalium damnatis, Sail. Cat. 
36.) Also, Nullae litterae praeter quae, except those which, Cic, = 
praeter eas quae. 

Obs. 3. On the other hand, some adverbs are occasionally used as prep- 
ositions ; viz., with the ablative, palarn, publicly, in presence q/^populo) ; 
TpTcocul, far from (procul mari, most generally procul a mari) ; simul, 
together with (simul his, poet, for simul cum his) ; with the accusa- 
tive, usqve (usqve pedes, but rarely, and only in late writers ; other- 
wise, usqve ad pedes) ; with the ablative or accusative, clam, without 
the knowledge of (clam patrem, clam vobis). 

Obs. 4. Prope is often combined with ab, prope ab urbe. Propius 
and proxime, from prope, are also used as prepositions with the accusa- 
tive ; propius urbem, proxime urbem (also propius, proxime ab 
urbe). Very rarely a dative is put after propius and proxime. Ver- 
sus is subjoined to ad and in: e.g. ad Oceanum versus, toward the 
Ocean; in Italiam versus, toward Italy. It is used in the same way 
with the ace. of names of cities, in signifying motion (§ 232) ; e.g. 
Romam versus ire, towards Rome. 

Obs. 5. Ergo, for the sake of, is used (in ^antiquated style) as a 
preposition with the genitive, and is put after its case ; as, victoriae 
ergo. 

§ 173. In composition with verbs, and with other words begin- 
ning with consonants, some prepositions undergo a modification in 
the final consonant, particularly by its assimilation with the conso- 
nant which follows (according to § 10). Cum (con) is also modi- 
fied before vowels. 

Ab. Abscedo, abscondo (cedo, condo) ; aufero, aufugio (fero, 
fugio, but afui, afore, or abfui) ; amoveo (moveo) ; asporto (porto) ; 
abstineo (teneo) ; avello. In the other compounds, ab remains un- 
changed ; as, abdo, abluo, abnego, abrado, absumo. 

Ad. D is changed into the following consonant: accedo, affero, 
aggero, allino, annbto, appareo, acqviro, arrogo, assumo, aspicio 
(not asspicio; see § 10),attingo; but d generally stands before m 






§ 173 ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 149 

(admiror), and always before j and v (adjaceo, adveho). Some, how- 
ever, wrote adcedo, adfero, &c, and particularly adspicio. 

Ex. Effero (fero, archaic, ecfero) ; existo (also written exsisto), 
exspecto and expecto as pronounced, see § 10). (Edo, egero, 
eluo, emoveo, enato, erigo, eveho ; but excedo, expedio, exqviro, 
extendo.) 

In. Imbibo, immergo, importo, before b, m, p; illino, irrepo; 
before other consonants it remains unchanged. (But we find inbibo, 
&c.) (Indigeo, indipiscor, from an older form, indu.) 

Ob. Occurro, offer o, oggero, opperior ; before other consonants, 
unchanged. (Instances of irregularity are found in obs-olesco, os- 
tendo, o-mitto.) 

Sub. Succurro, sufficio, suggero, summitto, supprimo, surripio 
(but subrideo, to smile ; subrusticus, somewhat clownish) ; before other 
consonants, unchanged. (The following are formed irregularly : sus- 
cipio, sus-cito, sus-pendo, sus-tineo, sus-tuli, from subs, with su-spi- 
cio and sus-censeo or succenseo.) 

Trans. Usually, traduco, trajicio, trano, sometimes tramitto (al- 
ways trado and traduco, not in their literal signification) ; with these 
exceptions, it is unaltered. (Transcribo.) 

Cum, in compounds, is changed, before consonants, to con, when the 
n is varied, as in in (comburo, committo, comprehendo, colligo, 
corripio). But some wrote also conburo, &c. Before vowels and h, it 
is changed to co ; coalesco, coemo, coire, coorior, cohaereo (coicio, 
archaic for conjicio). (But comedo. Cognosco, cognatus.) 

Obs. 1. Inter is changed in intelligo, per in pellicio (pelluceo and 
perluceo), ante in anticipo and antisto. 

Obs. 2. Of the preposition pro. it is to be observed, that it is short- 
ened in some few compounds ; namely, in profari, proficiscor (but pro- 
ficio), profiteor, profugio, profugus, profestus, pronepos; in procuro 
and propello, the pro is sometimes short. (Profundus, profanus.) 
With these exceptions, it is always long ; produco, promitto, &c. (In 
Greek words, the preposition pro is short, as in Greek, except in pro- 
logus, propino.) We may also notice prod-eo, prodesse, prodigo 
(ago), prodambulo; but proavus, prohibeo. (Otherwise, pro is not 
used before vowels.) 

Obs. 3. For circumeo, from circum and eo, we sometimes find cir- 
cueo, especially in the part. perf. circuitus, whence the substantive 
circuitus. 



150 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 175 

III. — RULES FOR THE FORMATION OF WORDS. 
CHAPTER I. 

FORMATION OF WORDS IN GENERAL. DERIVATION OF SUB- 
STANTIVES. 

§ 174. Roots (radices) is the name by which we distinguish 
the first original words or expressions of a language, which have 
neither received any augmentation nor are combined with any other 
word. By receiving inflectional endings, or being used in a certain 
defined way in speaking, the roots become primitive words or stems 
of a certain class; as, duc-O, dux (duc-s). When a verb is imme- 
diately formed from the root (as duco), it is usual to consider and 
speak of it as the root. 

Obs. 1. Besides those roots which express the definite idea of an ob- 
ject, there are also roots which serve only to give some indication or 
reference, and from these the pronominal words have taken their rise ; 
e.g. is, ibi, ita. Of those roots which denote ideas, most express an 
action or condition, and by means of inflectional endings are immedi- 
ately converted into verbs, so that the root is at the same time the stem, 
to which the endings are attached (§ 26). But various substantives are, 
likewise, formed immediately from the root by the simple addition of the 
case-endings ; e.g. dux. In many cases, the root is not found as a 
verb, but only as a substantive or adjective ; e.g. sol, frons, laus, pro- 
bus, levis (from which again are derived frondere, laudare, probare, 
levare) . 

Obs. 2. Sometimes a root, in becoming a verb, is changed, and aug- 
mented in the pronunciation, so that the root and the stem of the verb 
(in the present) are not entirely alike : e.g. frango (stem of the pres- 
ent, frang; root, frag, whence the perfect fregi). See § 118. 

Obs. 3. In the primitive verbs of the second conjugation, the e does 
not properly belong to the root, except in those which have evi in the 
perfect. (Hence, mon-ui, mon-i-tum, without e.) But to avoid pro- 
lixity and confusion, it is most convenient to speak here of the e as if it 
belonged to the root. 

§ 175. a. To the root, as it is contained in the primitive words 
formed from it, are attached derivative endings (suffixes, from suf- 
figu, to attach at the end), by which derivative words are formed. 
From a derived word others may be again derived, so that one and 



§ 175 FORMATION OF WORDS. 151 

the same word may be both a derivative itself, and a primitive in 
relation to others. From the root in amo (ama) comes amabilis, 
and from that amabilitas ; from the root in probus comes the verb 
probo, from that probabilis, and from this probabilitas. 

Obs. Properly speaking, the derivative ending forms only the stem 
of the new word, which does not become an actual word till it receives 
the inflectional ending by which the derivative ending is itself occasion- 
ally varied. From prob in probus is first formed proba (the stem of 
the verb) , which, with the ending of the first person present, becomes 
probo. From probabil is formed probabilitat, which, with the nomi- 
native ending, becomes probabilitas. For the sake of convenience, the 
derivative endings are here named with the first inflectional ending (espe- 
cially since a particular derivation requires at the same time a particular 
way of declension) : in substantives, therefore, the nominative ; in ad- 
jectives, the nominative masculine ; in verbs, the first person of the 
present indicative. 

b. Derivative endings serve to distribute and classify the different 
conceptions (e.g. an action, a person, a quality) which contain the 
signification of the primitive, so that the words formed with one 
and the same derivative ending belong to the same class, and denote 
ideas which are conceived in the same way ; e.g. words in tas are 
substantives, which denote a property. The most important of 
these kinds of derivation are here adduced according to the parts 
of speech to which the derivatives belong. 

Obs. 1. There are many derived Latin words, the root or primitive of 
which cannot be found ; others are derived according to forms which are 
unusual, or can no longer be recognized ; some derivative endings (espe- 
cially of substantives) are used only in a very few words, or chiefly in those 
the primitive of which is unknown, so that the meaning of the endings can- 
not be ascertained. In the case also of those endings, the force of which 
is more evident, the signification is sometimes very comprehensive, and 
rather undefined. 

Obs. 2. There are, sometimes, several endings which have the same 
meaning and application : e.g. tas and tudo denote properties ; in 
these cases, one ending is employed in some words, the other in others. 
Some derivative endings are rarely found in the older writers, but be- 
came common at a later period. 

Obs. 3. The examining and ascertaining of the origin of words from 
their roots and primitives is called Etymology (ttvpokoyia) ; l the primi- 
tive word is also called etymum (exv^iov, the real) . 



1 It will be seen that the term is here employed in a more restricted sense than when applied 
to the first part of Grammar. 



152 LATIN GRAMMAR. §177 

§ 176. a. The derivative endings are attached to the stem of the 
primitive, divested of the inflectional endings ; e.g. from the sub- 
stantive miles, gen. milit-is, are formed the verb milit-are, the 
substantive milit-ia, the adjective milit-aris. In substantives of 
the flrst and second (often also of the fourth declension), both a and 
U are dropped. When primitive verbs are varied in the stem of 
the present (§ 174, Obs. 2), the derivation is formed from the unal- 
tered root (which is shown in the inflection of the verb) ; e.g. from 
frango (frag) are derived the substantive fragor, and the adjective 
fragilis. 

Obs. If the last syllable of the stem has a different sound in the inflec- 
tion, according as it is open or close (e.g. semen, but semin-is ; colo, 
but cultus), this is also shown in the derivation (seminarium, colonia, 
but sementis, cultura). 

b. In verbs of the first and second conjugations, a and e are 
dropped before those derivative endings which begin with a vowel 
(am-or, pall-or, opin-io). .E is also dropped before consonants 
(except in those verbs which have evi in the perfect). 

Obs. In stems ending in u, u is changed into uv, before a vowel; 
e.g. pluviae, colluvies (but ruina). 

c. When the stem ends in a consonant, and the derivative ending 
begins with a consonant, a short connecting vowel (commonly 1, 
more rarely u) is frequently interposed. Sometimes no vowel is 
interposed, but a consonant rejected (e.g. fulmen from fulg-eo). 
This often takes place when the stem ends in v, in which case the 
preceding vowel is lengthened ; e.g. motus, mobilis, from moveo, 
adjumentnm from adjuvo. 

d. The final vowel of the verb-stems (a, e, i, ll) is always long 
before the derivative ending (velamen, complementnm ; molimen, 
volmneii). 

e. Sometimes the derivation is made not immediately from the 
stem of the verb, but from the supine, so that a new ending is 
affixed to its t or s (with the omission of urn) ; e.g. ama-t-or. 

Obs. The supine and participle are, themselves, formed like substan- 
tives and adjectives by derivation from the verb. 

§ 177. Substantives are derived from verbs (substantiva ver- 
balia) and from other substantives, or from adjectives (subst. 
denominativa). 



§ 178 FORMATION OF WORDS. 153 

Obs. From the proper derivative endings of the substantives, by which 
they are formed from known stems with a definite modification of their 
meaning, we must distinguish the final vowels a and u before the inflec- 
tional endings, by which the substantives acquire the open form of declen- 
sion (first and second) . These endings belong to a great number of 
substantives of which the roots are unknown ; but it is only in a few in- 
stances that substantives from known roots are formed by these alone (as 
the personal names scriba, advena, perfuga, from scribo, advenio, per- 
fugio, a being, at other times, a feminine ending ; coqvus, from coqvo) ; 
but they are found in combination with other derivative endings (ia, ium, 
&c.) Some few personal names are formed by simply adding the declen- 
sion-endings (nom. s) to known roots or verb-stems (dux, rex, pellex, 
praeses, from duco, rego, pellicio, praesideo), as also some other sub- 
stantives (lex, lux, nex, vox, obices, from lego, luceo, neco, voco, 
obicio). 

Of the endings with which substantives are formed from verbs, 
the following are to be noticed : — 

1. or, affixed to the stem of intransitive verbs (mostly of the first or 
second, never of the fourth conjugation), forms substantives, which de- 
note the action or condition ; amor, error, clamor, favor, pallor, furor 
(amare, errare, clamare, favere, pallere, furere). 

Obs. Various substantives in or are not derived from any known verb ; 
while, on the other hand, verbs are formed from them : e.g. honor, labor 
(hcnos, labos), — honorare, laborare. 

2. or, affixed to the stem of the supine (tor or sor), denotes the 
(male) agent ; amator, adjutor, monitor, fautor, victor, cursor, peti- 
tor ; auditor, largitor. 

From many such substantives in tor, there are formed feminines in 
trix: e.g. venatrix, victrix, fautrix, adjutrix; more rarely in strix 
from those in sor : e.g. tonstrix, from tonsor. (Expultrix, from ex- 
pulsor, rejecting the g.) 

Obs. 1. Sometimes, personal names in tor (ator or itor) are formed 
also from substantives of the first or second declension ; e.g. viator, gla- 
diator, funditor, from via, gladius, funda (janitor, from janua; vim- 
tor, from vinea). 

Obs. 2. Masculine names of persons, in o, onis, derived from verbs, 
are of less frequent occurrence : e.g. erro, from errare ; and heluo, from 
heluari. 

§ 178. Further: — 

3. io (ion-is), affixed to the stem of the supine (tio, sio), denotes the 
action of the verb from which it is derived ; e.g. administratio, tracta- 



154 LATIN GRAMMAR. §179 

tio, cautio, actio, accessio, divisio, largitio. (Mentio, from the unused 
meniscor.) 

Obs. More rarely, io is affixed immediately to the stem of the 
verb ; e.g. opinio (opinor), obsidio (obsideo), contagio (tango, tag), 
oblivio (from the original stem in obliviscor). Consortio, communio, 
are formed, in the same way, from adjectives. 

4. us (gen. us), affixed to the stem of the supine, also denotes the 
action of the verb ; e.g. visus, usus, auditus. 

Obs. 1. From some verbs, substantives are formed, both in io and in 
us ; e.g. contemptio and con temp tus, concursio and concursus. 
In some words, some writers prefer the one, others the other form (later 
authors more usually adopt the form in us), without any difference in the 
signification ; in other words, there is some difference in the usage : e.g. 
auditio, the act of hearing ; auditus, the sense of hearing. To signify 
on, in consequence of by (this or that action), the second supine of many 
verbs (abl. in u) is made use of, without a perfect substantive being 
formed; e.g. jussu, mandatu, rogatu (compare § 55, 4). 

Obs. 2. In some of these words in io and us, the signification of an 
action is lost : e.g. coenatio, a supper-room ; regio, a district (rego, to 
govern) ; legio, a legion (lego, to choose) ; victus, a way of life, suste- 
nance. 

5. Of the same signification as io and us, but somewhat rarer, is ura, 
affixed to the stem of the supine ; e.g. conjectura, cultura, niercatura, 
sepultura, natura (from nascor, different from natio) ; still more rare, 
is ela, affixed to the stem of the verb : e.g. qverela (qveror) ; or to that 
of the supine: e.g. corruptela (corrumpo). Ium. affixed to the 
stem of the verb, has nearly the same signification ; e.g. judicium, 
gaudium, odium, perfugium (place of refuge), vaticinium (vatici- 
nor). 

Obs. From some few verbs, there are formed substantives in igo, which 
denote an action or a condition arising out of the action ; e.g. origo 
(orior), vertigo (turning, dizziness), tentigo (tendo), prurigo (pru- 
rio). Cupido, formido, libido, from cupio, formido, libet.) les 
denotes rather a result produced ; e.g. congeries, effigies (from fingo, 
without n), species (from the unused specio), acies from acuo. 

§ 179. Further : — 

6. The termination men (min-is) denotes a thing in which an action 
and activity appear; e.g. vimen (vieo), flumen (fluo), lumen (luceo, 
the c rejected), specimen (specio, spexi), examen (for exagmen, 
from ago). Sometimes, the result, the means, the action itself: e.g. volu- 
men, what is rolled together, a roll ; acumen, what is sharpened, a point; 
levamen, nomen (novi), certamen. The poets and later prose- 



§ 180 FORMATION OF WORDS. 155 

writers use many words in men, some to express an action, others the 
means and instrument, which do not occur in the earlier prose-writers, 
who use instead words in io, us (gen. us, § 178, 4), or in mentum (see 
infra. 7) ; e.g. conamen, hortamen, molimeii (conatus, hortatio, mo- 
litio), regimen, tegmen (also tegimen, tegumen), velamentum, tegu- 
mentum). 

7. The termination mentum denotes a mean, an instrument, a thing 
which serves for some end ; ornamentum, complementum, instru- 
mentum, alimentum (alo), condimentum (condio), monumen- 
tum, documentum (moneo, doceo, with the connecting vowel u), 
adjumentum (adjuvo, adjuv-i, v being rejected), momentum (mo- 
veo), tormentum (torqveo). (Compare § 176, c.) 

Obs. Sometimes, such words in mentum are formed from substantives 
or adjectives of the first or second declension, as if they came from verbs 
of the first conjugation (amentum) ; e.g. atramentum {means of black- 
ening, black paint, ink), ferramentum. 

8. culum (in earlier times written and pronounced clum) and 
bulum denote the means or instrument (sometimes the place) of an 
action : gubernaculum ; coenaculum, a garret (properly, a dining- 
room) ; ferculum (fero), operculum (operio, oper-ui), vehiculum, 
vocabulum, pabulum (pasco, pa-vi), stabulum (a stall, standing- 
place), latibulum (lateo), infundibulum (infundo). If the stem 
ends in c or g, only ulum is added ; vinculum (vinc-io), cingulum, 
(cingo). 

Obs. 1. Crum is used instead of clum (culum) when there is an 1 
in the preceding syllable, or the one before it ; sepulcrum (sepelio), 
fulcrum (fulcio), simulacrum, lavacrum. Brum is used instead of 
bulum when there is an 1 in the preceding syllable ; flabrum, ventila- 
brum (also cribrum, from cerno, and some feminines in bra; e.g. dola- 
bra, latebra, vertebra, as fabula, from fari). 

Obs. 2. The same meaning is expressed by trum, before which d is 
changed to s ; aratrum, claustrum (claudo), rostrum (rodo). 

Obs. 3. Some few such words are formed from other substantives :- e.g. 
turibulum, a censer, from tus; candelabrum (see Obs. 1), from 
candela. 

§ 180. Substantives derived from other substantives have the 
following terminations : — 

1. ium, affixed to personal names, denotes a condition and rela- 
tion, sometimes an action or employment ; e.g. collegium, convivium, 
sacerdotium, ministerium, testimonium, from collega, convivia, 
sacerdos, minister, testis. Affixed to personal names in tor, it denotes 
the place of the action ; e.g. auditorium, from auditor. 



156 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 181 

2. atus, affixed to personal names, denotes a relation and office ; con- 
sulatus, tribunatus, triumviratus. fCensura, dictatura, praetura, 
praefectura, qvaestura.) 

3. arius denotes a person who engages in something as a trade ; e.g. 
statuarius, argentarius, sicarius ; arium, a place for collecting or pre- 
serving any thing : granarium, seminarium, armamentarium, viva- 
rium (place for preserving living animals) , from granum, semen, 
armamenta, vivus ; avia, sometimes the place where labor is applied 
to something. (Compare the adjective termination arius, § 187, 10.) 

4. Ina, affixed to personal names, denotes an employment and a place 
for carrying on a thing; medicina, sutrina (sutor), doctrina, disci- 
plina, tonstrina (tonsor). (Omcina, from ofiicium; piscina, from 
piscic ; ruina, from ruo ; rapina, from rapio ; in the neuter, textri- 
num, pistrinum.) (In regina, gallina, it denotes only the feminine 
gender.) 

5. al, ar (the last formed is used when an 1 occurs in the preceding 
syllable, or the one before it (compare § 179, 8, Obs. 1), denotes a 
material object, which stands in relation to a thing, or belongs to 
it ; e.g. puteal, animal, calcar, pulvmar, from puteus, animus, calx, 
pulvinus. 

Obs. Properly the neuter of the adjective ending alis (aris), without 
the e, which is retained in a few words ; e.g. facale, neck-cloth. 

6. etum, affixed to the names of plants, denotes the place where they 
grow together in a quantity, and also the plants themselves collectively ; 
e.g. olivetum, myrtetum, fruticetum, arundinetum, qvercetum, from 
oliva, myrtus, frutex, arundo, qvercus. 

Obs. The following are formed irregularly : salictum, carectum 
(salix, carex), arbustum (arbos), virgultum (virgula). 

ile, affixed to the names of animals, denotes a stall ; bubile, ovile 
(bos, ovis). (Affixed to verbs, it also signifies a place ; cubile, a place 
to lie down, a couch ; sedile.) 

Obs. Examples of derivative endings of rare occurrence, or with a 
less obvious signification in substantives derived from substantives, are o 
or io (in some personal names ; e.g. praedo, from praeda ; centurio, 
mulio, from centuria, -mulus; but in many other words, from some 
unknown stem), Ica (e.g. lectica, from lectus, and in words from an 
unknown stem), ica (fabrica, from faber), ia (e.g. militia, from miles), 
ugo (e.g. aerugo, from aes), uria (e.g. centuria, luxuria, from centum, 
luxus). 

§ 181. From some names of male persons and animals in us and 
er, corresponding feminine nouns are formed by affixing a to the 
stem, us being dropped ; e.g. eqva, cerva, capra, from eqvus, cer- 
vus, caper (see § 30), dea, filia, serva, magistra, from deus, filius, 



§182 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 157 



servus, magister ; also in trix, from personal names in tor (§ 177, 
2). Those substantives which have a corresponding feminine form 
are called subst. mobilia. 

Obs. It is only in a few solitary instances, that a is found attached 
in this way to stems of the third declension ; antistita, clienta, hos- 
pita, tibicma, from antistes, cliens, hospes, tibicen. A rarer forma- 
tion still is that of regina, gallina, leaena, from rex, gallus, leo ; avia, 
neptis, socrus, from avus, nepos, socer. 

§ 182. The following terminations should also be noticed : — 

1. By means of lus, la, or lum, and cuius, cula, or culum, are formed 
diminutives, which are often used by way of endearment, commisera- 
tion, or to ridicule something insignificant: e.g. hortiilus, a Utile gar- 
den-, matercula, a (poor) mother; ingeniolum, a little bit of talent. 
The diminutives have the same gender as their primitives, and end, 
accordingly, in us, a, or um. Both sets of endings are combined in dif- 
ferent ways with the different stems, and hence occasionally assume an 
irregular form. 

With respect to this it is to be observed : — 

a. lus (a, um) is used with primitive words of the first and second 
declension, and with some few of the third, but always when the charac- 
teristic letter is c or g. It is affixed to the stem (after rejecting a or us), 
with the connecting vowel u (therefore, ulus, ula, ulum) ; e.g. arcula, 
litterula, lunula, servulus, oppidulum, aetatula, adolescentulus, 
facula, regulus, from area, littera, luna, servus, oppidum, aetas, ado- 
lescens, fax, rex. If a vowel precedes us, a, um, in the primitive, then 
the diminutive ends in olus (a, um) ; e.g. filiolus, lineola, ingenio- 
lum, from filius, linea, ingenium. 

b. To stems of the first and second declension in ul, r with a conso- 
nant preceding, and in in, with some others in er and n, lus (a, um) is 
affixed without a connecting vowel ; r and n are assimilated with the 
following 1 ; u and i are changed into e, and e inserted before r after a 
consonant (ellus, ella, ellum) : e.g. tabella, ocellus (tabula, oculus) ; 
libella, agellus, libellus, labellum (from libra, ager (agri), liber, 
labrum) ; lamella, asellus (from lamina, asinus) ; catella, corolla, 
opella, puella (from catena, corona, opera, and the unused puera, from 
puer). 

Obs. 1. Diminutives of this class are sometimes formed from other 
diminutives ; cista, cistula, cistella, and (by again adding ula) cistel- 
lula. 

Obs. 2. Some few words have the termination illus (a, um), instead 
of ellus; as, bacillum, pugillus, sigillum, pulvillus, from baculum, 



158 LATIN GRAMMAR. §183 

pugnus, signum, pulvinus. Codicillus, lapillus, eiaigvUla, from co- 
dex, lapis, angvis, are formed in the same way, from primitives of the 
third declension. 

c. cuius (a, um) is used with primitives of the third, fourth, and fifth 
declension. In primitives of the third declension in 1, r, and s, if this last 
is not merely the nominative ending (consequently, when it is changed 
to r in the genitive) , the diminutive ending is affixed immediately to the 
nominative ; animalculum, fraterculus, matercula, uxorcula, corcu- 
lum, flosculus, osculum, opusculum, pulvisculus, from animal, fra- 
ter, mater, uxor, cor, flos, os (oris), opus, pulvis. (Vasculum, from 
vas, vasis.) 

Obs. From rumor is formed rumusculus ; and from arbor, arbus- 
cula (and, in the same way, grandiusculus, &c, from the comparative 
grandior) ; ventriculus, from venter (acriculus, from the adj. acer). 
From os, ossis, is formed ossiculum. 

d. From primitives in o (on-is, or in-is) is deduced the form un- 
culus ; e.g. sermunculus, ratiuncula, homunculus (sermo, ratio, 
homo.) (Caruncula, from caro ; pectunculus, from pecten.) 

Obs. The following are formed irregularly, with the same ending : 
avunculus, domuncula, furunculus, from avus, domus, fur (ranun- 
culus, from rana, with a change of gender) . 

e. In primitives in es, gen. is or ei, and is, gen. is, the ending is 
affixed to the stem, after dropping the nominative ending s : nubecula, 
diecula, pisciculus, from nubes, dies, piscis (aedicula, from the form 
aedis) ; in the words in e, the e is changed into i: e.g. reticulum, from 
rete. 

f. In those words in which the nominative ending s is affixed to a 
consonant, and in words of the fourth declension, the ending is affixed 
to the stem with the connecting vowel i (the u being first rejected in the 
fourth declension) ; e.g. ponticulus, particula, coticula, versiculus, 
corniculum (from pons, pars, cos, versus, cornu). 

Obs. 1. If the stem ends in c or g, the ending lus is made use of. 
See a. 

Obs. 2. The following are irregular forms : homuncio (homullus), 
from homo, eculeus, from eqvus; aculeus, a point or sting, masc. from 
the fern. acus. 

Obs. 3. The diminutive form illus (a, um) occurs in some words with 
the characteristic x, which appear to be immediately derived from verbs, 
but have shorter substantives corresponding to them, formed by reject- 
ing the x, and contraction ; e.g. vexillum (veho, vex-i) and velum 
paxillus (pango) and palus, maxilla and mala. (Tela from texo.) 

§ 183. The Greek patronymics, which designate sons, daughters, 
or descendants of a man, and end in Ides, ides, or ades, of the firsi 



§ 184 FORMATION OF WORDS. 159 

declension, or end in is, idos, or ias, iados, of the feminine gender, 
are used by the Latin poets, — and in prose, also, when well-known 
Greek families are spoken of: Priamides, Pelides (Peleus), Aene- 
ades, Alcmaeonidae ; Tantalis, Nereis (Nereus), Thestias (Thes- 
tius). 

§ 184. Substantives which denote a quality are formed from 
adjectives, by the following endings : — 

1. tas, with the connecting vowel i (itas) affixed to the stem of the 
adjective ; e.g. bonitas, crudelitas, atrocitas. From adjectives in ius 
is formed ietas: e.g. pietas; from those in stus is formed stas : e.g. 
venustas. 

Obs. The following are without a connecting vowel : libertas, pau- 
pertas, pubertas, ubertas, facultas, difficultas. Some few substan- 
tives of this form are derived from substantives, as auctoritas; or from 
verbs, as potestas. To this is allied the ending tus ; e.g. virtus, 
from vir. 

2. ia, mostly from adjectives and participles of one termination ; e.g. 
audacia, concordia, inertia, dementia, abundantia, magnificentia 
(from magnificus, like magnificentior) , (but also miseria, perfidia, &c, 
and from those in cundus: facundia, iracundia, verecundia; but 
jucunditas). 

3. tia (itia), from a few adjectives of three terminations ; e.g. 
malitia, justitia, laetitia, avaritia, pigritia, tristitia. 

Obs. Some of these have also a form in ies; as, mollitia and molli- 
ties, usually planities (planus). From pauper, we find pauperies 
(commonly paupertas). 

4. tudo, affixed to the stem (of adjectives of three or two termina- 
tions), with an i; e.g. altitudo, aegritudo, similitude 

Obs. 1. To some adjective stems in t, udo alone is affixed ; e.g. con- 
svetudo, sollicitudo. 

Obs. 2. From some adjectives, there are formed substantives, 
both in tas and tudo ; e.g. claritas and claritudo, firmitas and 
firmitudo. In such cases, the substantive in tudo is generally the least 
used. 

Obs. 3. From dulcis is formed dulcedo (usually in derived signi- 
fication, attraction, or cliarm), (dulcitudo, sweetness, is rare), and from 
gravis (subst. gravitas, iveight), gravedo, signifying heaviness of the 
head, cold. (Torpedo, from torpeo.) Later writers form some addi- 
tional substantives in this way; pingvedo (for pingvitudo), pu- 
tredo, &c. 

Obs. 4. A more rare and peculiar termination is monia ; e.g. sancti- 
monia, castimonia, acrimonia. (Pa.rsim.onia., frugality, for parcimo- 
nia, qverimonia, a complaint, from the verb qveror.) 



160 LATIN GRAMMAR- § 185 

CHAPTER II 

DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

§ 185. Adjectives are derived partly from verbs, partly from 
substantives, and a few from adverbs. From verbs are formed 
adjectives with the following endings (besides the participles, which 
— both those in ordinary use, and those in bundus, § 115, g — 
may also be included in this class) : — 

1. ldus (dus with the connecting vowel i), affixed chiefly to the stem 
of intransitive verbs in eo, denotes the condition and property which are 
expressed by the verb ; e.g. calidus, frigidus, tepidus, humidus, ari- 
dus, madidus, timidus, from caleo, &c. Some few are formed from 
other verbs or from substantives, or have no known primitive; e.g. 
rapidus, turbidus, lepidus, trepidus, whence trepidare (gravidus, 
from gravis) . 

2. a. ilis (lis with a connecting vowel), affixed to the stems ending 
in a consonant, denotes passively the capacity of being the object of an 
action: e.g. fragilis, brittle; facilis, what may be done, easy; utilis, 
docilis, habilis (doc-eo, hab-eo). 

b. This is still oftener expressed by bilis (with the connecting vowel, 
ibilis) ; e.g. amabilis, probabilis, flebilis (fleo, flevi) volubilis 
(volv-o), credibilis, vendibilis (mobilis, nobilis, from mov-eo, novi, 
the v being dropped). 

Obs. 1. Some such adjectives have an active signification; e.g. prae- 
stabilis, terribilis, causing fright. (Penetrabilis, penetrating, and 
penetrable.) 

Obs. 2. Some adjectives in ilis are formed from the supine, partly 
with the signification of a possibility : e.g. fissilis, what may be cleft ; 
versatilis, what may be turned ; partly (and chiefly) with the mere sig- 
nification of the passive verb (produced by, like the perf. part.) : e.g. 
fictilis, coctilis, altilis. (Some in bilis also are formed from the su- 
pine : comprehensibilis, comprehensible ; flexibilis, pliant ; plausi- 
bilis, commendable.) 

3. ax, affixed to the stem, denotes a desire, inclination, most fre- 
quently one that is too violent or vicious : e.g. pugnax, audax, edax, 
loqvax, rapax (rap-io) ; sometimes, only the action itself (like the part, 
pres.) : e.g. minax, threatening ; fallax, deceiving. (Capax, that which 
can contain.) 

4. Less usual are the endings cundus (capacity, inclination, approach 
to an action) : e.g. iracundus(ira-scor), facundus (fari), verecuudus, 



§ 187 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 161 

rubicundus {ruddy, rubeo 1 ) ; ulus (lus with u), denoting either a 
simple action, or an inclination to it : e.g. patulus, qverulus, credulus 
(garrulus, from garrio) ; uus, with a passive signification from trans- 
itives : e.g. conspicuus, perspicuus, individuus ; sometimes (poeti- 
cally) with an active sense, from intransitives : e.g. congruus ; aneus : 
e.g. consentaneus, nearly = consentiens. 

§ 186. Adjectives are formed from substantives chiefly with the 
following endings, of which some closely resemble each other in 
meaning, and cannot in all cases be clearly distinguished. 

1. eus denotes the material of which a thing consists; e.g. aureus, 
ligneus, cinereus (cinis, ciner-is), igneus, vimineus. It more rarely 
denotes something which a thing resembles in its nature ; e.g. virgineus 
(poet.), maidenlike, roseus (poet.) 

Obs. To denote the kind of wood of which a thing is made, the 
ending neus or nus is commonly employed ; e.g. iligneus, or ilignus, 
qverneus, qvernus, populneus (rarely populnus, also populeus), 
faginus (connecting vowel i), cedrinus. In the same way we find 
eburneus, eburnus, coccinus, coccineus, and adamantinus, chrys- 
tallinus. The ending nus also signifies what belongs to a thing or 
comes from it; as, paternus, fraternus, maternus, vernus (of spring). 

2. icius (cius with i) denotes the material of which a thing is made, 
or that to which a person or thing belongs : e.g. latericius, caement- 
icius, tribunicius, aedilicius, gentilicius (relating to the gentiles, 
the members of the same gens) . 

Obs. Sometimes adjectives in icius are derived from the part. perf. 
pass, or from the supine, and denote the way in which a thing originates, 
and consequently its kind : commenticius, feigned ; collaticius, 
effected by contributions ; adventicius. (Novicius, from novus.) 

3. aceus denotes material or resemblance, or that to which a thing 
belongs; e.g. argillaceus, ampullaceus (formed like a bottle), gallin- 
aceus. 

§ 187. Further: — 

4. icus (cus with i) denotes to what a thing belongs or relates ; e.g. 
bellicus, civicus, hosticus. 

Obs. 1. Instead of civicus, hosticus, prose-writers rather use civilis, 
hostilis (5), except only in the combinations, corona civica, ager 
hosticus. 

Obs. 2. From these must be carefully distinguished the following 
words derived from verbs or prepositions : amicus, inimicus, pudicus, 
anticus, posticus (apricus, from an uncertain root) . 

1 Jucundus (juvo), fecundus. 



162 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 187 

Obs. 3. The belonging to a thing is also expressed by ticus ; e.g. 
aqvaticus, rusticus, domesticus. 

5. ilis denotes what is agreeable to the nature of a thing and resem- 
bles it, also what belongs to it; civilis, puerilis, anilis (anus), scur- 
rilis, gentilis. (Subtilis of uncertain derivation, but humilis, parilis.) 

6. alis has the same signification as ilis, but is far more common ; 
e.g. naturalis, fatalis, decemviralis, judicialis, mortalis, regalis, 
virginalis (liberalis, from the adjective liber). If the ending be pre- 
ceded by an 1, or if the last syllable but one before the ending begins or 
ends with 1, aris is used instead of alis (compare § 179, 8, Obs. 1) ; 
e.g. popularis, militaris, palmaris (but pluvialis, fluvialis). 

Obs. atilis, what belongs to a thing, is at home in a thing, is suited 
to a thing ; aqvatilis, fluviatilis, umbratilis. 

7. ius denotes a conformity, or belonging to something ; e.g. patrius, 
regius. It is usually formed from personal names in or; praetorius, 
imperatorius, uxorius. 

8. inus denotes what belongs to a thing or proceeds from it: e.g. 
divinus, marinus, libertinus ; particularly from the names of animals : 
e.g. ferinus, eqvinus, agninus (e.g. of meat, agnina 1 ). 

Obs. From this termination we must carefully distinguish inus (nus 
with a connecting vowel), of the material, especially with the names of 
trees and plants (§ 186, 1, Obs.). 

9. anus denotes a resemblance, a belonging to a thing : montanus, 
urbanus, rusticanus, meridianus (humanus, from homo) ; espe- 
cially from ordinal numbers, in order to show what belongs to a partic- 
ular number : miles primanus, a soldier of the first legion ; febris 
qvartana, a quartan ague. 

10. arius, what concerns or belongs to a thing ; agrarius, gregarius, 
ordinarius, tumultuarius. (In the masc. it is often used as a sub- 
stantive, of a person who occupies himself with any thing. See § 180, 3.) 
From the distributive numerals are formed adjectives in arius, in order 
to denote that a thing bears a particular relation to a certain number : 
e.g. nummus denarius, a coin which contains ten asses ; senex 
septuagenarius, an old man of seventy, &c. ; numerus ternarius, the 
number three. (The following are formed from adverbs : adversarius, 
contrarius, temerarius ; necessarius, from necesse.) 

11. ivus, what belongs or is adapted to a thing; festivus, furtivus 
(furtum), aestivus (irregularly from aestas) . Affixed to participles, 
it denotes (like icius) the way in which a thing has originated ; e.g. 
nativus, sativus, captivus. 



1 Bubulus, ovillus, suillus. 



§ 189 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 163 

§ 188. Further: — 

12. osus denotes the property of being full of a thing ; ingeniosus, 
calamitosus, libidinosus, lapidosus, damnosus, periculosus (ambi- 
tiosus, supers titiosus, from ambition-is, superstition-is, omitting the 
n; laboriosus). From substantives of the fourth declension there is 
formed uosus ; e.g. saltuosus. 

13. ulentus (lentus with a connecting vowel ; after n and i, olentus), 
full of a thing, connected with a thing ; e.g. fraudulentus, turbulentus, 
sangvinolentus, violentus. 

14. The ending atus (formed like a participle of the first conjugation) 
denotes what a thing has, or is provided with, and forms a great number 
of adjectives : e.g. barbatus, calceatus ; falcatus, set with sickles, 
sometimes, formed like a sickle; virgatus, striped; auratus, gilt; 
togatus. 

Obs. 1. From substantives in is, gen. is, is derived the form Itus: 
e.g. auritus, crinitus (all poetical or of more recent date ; also mel- 
litus from mel, galeritus from galerus) ; from words of the fourth 
declension are formed a few in utus : as, cornutus, astutus (nasutus, 
from nasus, 2) , but arcuatus (arqvatus) . 

Obs. 2. With tus are also formed onustus, robustus, venustus, 
funestus, scelestus, honestus, modestus, molestus. 

15. Less important endings are timus (legitimus), ensis (belonging 
to a particular place; castrensis, forensis), ester (campester, 
eqvester) . 

Obs. 1. From some substantives in or, which are derived from verbs 
(§ 177, 1), the poets form adjectives in orus: canorus, odorus (odor, 
from oleo) ; decorus (decet) is used in prose. 

Obs. 2. From some adjectives are formed diminutives according to 
the rules given above (§ 182) for the substantives ; parvulus, aureolus, 
pulchellus, misellus, pauperculus, leviculus (parvus, aureus, 
pulcher, miser, pauper, levis). Bellus (bonus), novellus (novus), 
and paullum (parvus) are formed irregularly. 

Obs. 3. From adverbs of time and place are formed adjectives which 
express the property of belonging to a certain time or place, — some of 
them with peculiar derivative endings, and with a number of irregulari- 
ties in the several words : as, in inus (peregrinus, from peregre ; 
repentinus, matutinus, intestinus ; clandestinus, from clam) ; tinus 
(diutinus, pristinus) ; rnus (hodiernus, diurnus, nocturnus, from 
diu, in its earlier meaning, by day, and noctu) ; ternus (sempiternus, 
hesternus from heri) ; Icus (posticus). 

§ 189. Adjectives are formed from proper names according to 
special rules. Of adjectives derived from the names of men and 
families it is to be observed : — 



164 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 190 

1. The names of Roman families (gentes) in ius are properly adjec- 
tives (Fabius, gens Fabia), and are used, as such, of a man's works or 
undertakings, so far as they pertain to the community or state ; e.g. lex 
Cornelia, Julia, via Appia, circus Flaminius. Any thing else that 
relates to a member of a gens, and is named after him, is expressed by 
adjectives in anus derived from the name ; e.g. bellum Marianum, 
classis Fompejana. 

2. From Roman surnames are formed adjectives in ianus, to indicate 
what relates to a man, or is named after him: e.g. Ciceronianus, 
Caesarianus ; more rarely in anus from some in a : e.g. Sullanus ; 
and from some few in us : e.g. Gracchanus (more usual forms are 
Lepidianus, Lucullianus, &c.) ; also rarely in Inus : e.g. Verrinus, 
Flautinus. 

Obs. Some few adjectives, which have become surnames, are partly 
used as adjectives applying to the family and the individual (domus 
Augusta, portus Trajanus), partly have new adjectives derived from 
them, as Augustanus. By the poets and later writers, adjectives in 
eus were formed from Roman names ; as, Caesareus, Romuleus (even 
gens Romula). 

3. From Greek proper names, the two Greek forms in eus (ius, 
uog) and icus are made use of, of some both forms, but of others one 
only, or at least chiefly; e.g. Aristotelms, Epicureus, Flatonicus, 
Demosthenicus. 

§ 190. From the names of towns, adjectives are formed in Latin 
with the endings anus, inus, as, ensis, which express what belongs 
to the town, and are at the same time used as substantives to denote 
the inhabitants (nomina gentilicia). These Latin adjectives are 
formed also from many Greek towns (or towns known to the 
Romans through the Greeks), but not from all. 

1. anus is used with names ending in a, ae, urn, i: e.g. Romanus, 
Formianus (Formiae), Tusculanus (Tusculum), Fundanus 
(Fundi) ; also with some Greek names in a and ae : e.g. Trojanus, 
Syracusanus, Thebanus, and some others, which have also in Greek an 
adjective in anus: e.g. Trallianus (Tralles). 

Obs. From the names of towns, which form a Greek word in ites 
(lxtjs) to express the name of the inhabitants, adjectives are formed in 
Latin in itanus ^ e.g. Tyndaritanus (Tyndaris), Panormitanus 
(Panormus), Neapolitanus (and so from all in polis). (Gaditanus, 
from Gades.) 

2. inus, with names ending in ia and ium : e.g. Amerinus (Ame- 
lia), Lanuvinus (Lanuvium), (Fraenestinus, Reatinus, from Frae- 



§ 191 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 165 

neste, Reate) ; and with various Greek names, which have inus also in 
the Greek : e.g, Centuripinus, Tarentinus, Agrigentinus. 

3. as (gen. atis), with some in a, ae, and urn (mostly na, nae, and 
num); e.g. Capenas (Capena), Fidenas (Fidenae), Arpinas, 
Urbinas, Antias. (Never with Greek towns.) 

4. ensis, with names in o, and some in a, ae, urn : e.g. Sulmonensis, 
Tarraconensis, Bononiensis (Bononia), Cannensis (Cannae), 
Ariminensis (Ariminum), (Carthaginiensis, Crotoniensis) ; and with 
Greek names of towns, from which the names of the inhabitants are 
formed in svg (tevg, iensis) : e.g. Patrensis, Chalcidensis, Laodi- 
censis, Nicomedensis, Thespiensis, with some others (Atheniensis), 

Obs. 1. In some rare instances, eus is retained from evg : e.g. Cittieus, 
for Cittiensis ; Halicarnasseus, for Halicarnassensis. 

Obs. 2. The following adjectives, derived from the names of towns, 
are irregular in their form : Tiburs, Gamers, Caeres, Vejens. 

5. The Greek adjectives in ius {iog)< formed from the names of 
towns and islands (in us, um, and on, with some others) , are retained 
in Latin: e.g. Corinthius, Rhodius, Byzantius, Lacedaemonius, 
Clazomenius (Clazomenae), (Aegyptius, from the name of the coun- 
try, Aegyptus) ; so also those in enus : e.g. Cyzicenus ; sometimes 
also those in aeus : e.g. Smyrnaeus, Erythraeus (Cumanus in prose, 
Cumaeus in poetry, and so with several others) . 

Obs. The Latin writers also occasionally retain the Greek names 
of the inhabitants in tes (ates, ites, otes) ; e.g. Abderites, Spartia- 
tes (adj. Spartanus), Tegeates (adj. Tegeaeus), Heracleotes. 

§ 191. The names of nations are often themselves adjectives, 
formed with the endings given in the preceding paragraphs ; 
e.g.: — 

Romanus, Latinus (from Latium), Sabinus (without a primitive), 
and in sous or cus (Oscus, Volscus, Etruscus, Graecus) ; in this case, 
they are used as genuine adjectives to express whatever concerns and be- 
longs to the people (bellum Latinum, &c.) . From other national names, 
which are pure substantives, are formed adjectives in icus, and from the 
Greek (or such as were adopted from the Greeks) also in ius ; e.g. Itali- 
cus, Gallicus, Marsicus, Arabicus, Syrius, Thracius, Cilicius (Italus, 
Gallus, Marsus, Arabs, Syrus, Thrax, Cilix). Of individuals, how- 
ever, such expressions are used as miles Gallus, &c, not Gallicus; 
and the poets use and even decline as adjectives national names in us, 
which are otherwise substantives : e.g. orae Italae (Yirg.) ; aper Mar- 
sus, flumen Medum (Hor. for Medicum), Colcha venena. 

Obs. 1. In the same way, we read, in the poets, flumen Rhenum, 
for flumen Rhenus. (Mare Oceanum, Caes.) 



166 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 193 

Obs. 2. Concerning the use of the Greek feminine national names and 
adjectives in is and as, in the Latin poets, see, under Rules for Inflec- 
tion, § 60, Obs. 5. They also employ the Greek feminines of some 
national names ending in ssa (Cilissa, Cressa, Libyssa, Phoenissa, 
Threissa, or Thressa) both as substantives and adjectives ; e.g. Cressa 
pharetra (Virg.). 

§ 192. From the names of countries (which are regularly formed 
from the national names by the ending ia ; Italia, Gallia, Graecia, 
Cilicia, Phrygia), adjectives are sometimes again formed to denote 
what is in the country (not the people) or comes out of it ; e.g. 
pecunia Siciliensis, exercitus Hispaniensis, the Roman army in 
Spain. (Africanus, Asiaticus.) 

Obs. 1. We must notice some names of countries in ium (like names 
of towns) : e.g. Latium, Saninium; with some of Greek origin in us 
(Aegyptus, Epirus). 

Obs. 2. There are several names of nations, from which no names of 
countries are formed, but the same word is used to designate both : e.g. 
in Aeqvis, Sabinis, Bruttiis habitare, hiemare; in Bruttios ire; ex 
Seqvanis exercitum educere. 



CHAPTER III. 

DERIVATION OF VERBS, 

§ 193. Verbs are derived from substantives, from adjectives, and 
from other verbs. 

a. Many transitive verbs are derived from substantives by sim- 
ply affixing to the stem the endings of the first conjugation. These 
verbs signify to exercise and employ on something that which is 
denoted by the substantive ; e.g. fraudare, honorare, laudare, nu- 
merare, turbare, onerare, vulnerare. 

Obs. 1. In the formation of such verbs, a preposition is sometimes 
prefixed; e.g. exaggerare, to heap up (agger; aggerare is rare and 
poet.) ; exstirpare, to root out (stirps). See Rules for the Composi- 
tion of Words, § 206, b, 2. 

Obs. 2. In a few instances, intransitive verbs are formed by this mode 
of derivation ; e.g. laborare, militare, from labor, miles. 

Obs. 3. Some few such verbs are formed after the fourth conjugation : 
e.g. finire, vestire, custodire, punire (finis, vestis, custos, poena) ; 



§ 195 DERIVATION OF VERBS. 167 

the intransitive servire ; a few intransitives after the second : e.g. floreo, 
frondeo (flos, frons). 

b. In the same way are formed from substantives (and adjectives) 
a great number of deponents of the first conjugation, mostly with 
an intransitive signification (to be something, behave like something, 
occupy one's self with something, &c.) ■, e.g. : — 

Philosophor, to be a philosopher, philosophize (philosophus) ; grae- 
cor, to act or live like a Greek (Graecus) ; aqvor, to fetch icater (aqva) ; 
piscor, to fish (piscis) ; negotior, to traffic (negotia) ; laetor, to be joy- 
ful (laetus) ; far less frequently with a transitive signification : e.g. in- 
terpreter, to interpret, explain (interpres, an interpreter) ; osculor, to 
kiss (osculum, a kiss) ; furor, to steal (fur, a thief), &c. (Partior, 
sortior, from pars, sors.) 

Obs. The following have peculiar derivative endings : navigo (litigo, 
mitigo), and latrocinor (patrocinor, vaticinor). 

§ 194 Transitive verbs are formed from adjectives (mostly from 
those of the first and second declension) by adding the endings of 
the first conjugation; first, with the signification, to make a thing 
what the adjective denotes ; and, secondly, with a signification often 
modified in various ways : — 

Maturare, to make ripe, to hasten ; levare, to make smooth (levis) ; 
ditare, to enrich (dives) ; honestare, to honor ; probare, to approve. 
Such verbs have rarely an intransitive signification : e.g. nigrare, to be 
black ; concordare, to be agreed ; propinqvare, to draw near ; durare 
(trans.) to harden, (intrans.) to endure. 

Obs. 1. A preposition sometimes enters into the composition of such 
transitive verbs : e.g. dealbare, to whiten (albus) ; exhilarare, to cheer 
(hilarus). (Compare § 206, b, 2.) (Memoro, propinquo, are com- 
monly commemoro, appropinquo, in the best prose.) 

Obs. 2. Some few such verbs are formed after the fourth conjugation : 
e.g. lenire, mollire, stabilire (lenis, mollis, stabilis) ; and some intran- 
sitives : e.g. superbire, ferocire (superbus, ferox; the deponent blan- 
dior, from blandus) ; some few intransitives, after the second : e.g. 
albeo, to be white ; caneo, to be gray. 

§ 195. From verbs are derived new verbs with a signification 
somewhat varied in the following ways : — 

1. By the ending ito (itare, 1st) are derived verbs which denote a 
frequent repetition of an action, frequentative verbs. The ending is 
affixed to the stem of verbs of the first conjugation, and to the stem of 
the supine of verbs of the third, and those of which the supine is simi- 



168 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 197 

larly formed; e.g. clamito, rogito, minitor (minor), dictito, cursito, 
haesito (haereo), visito (video), ventito (venio). 

Obs. From ago, qvaero, nosco (3d), are formed agito, qvaerito, 
noscito, as from verbs of the first conjugation. Latito, pavito, pol- 
licitor, from lateo, paveo, polliceor (2d) . 

2. The repetition of an action is also expressed by simply affixing the 
ending of the first conjugation to the stem of supines formed according 
to the third; e.g. curso (cursare), merso, adjuto (adjutum), tutor 
(tutus, from tueor), amplexor (amplexus, from amplector), ito 
(itum). Most of these verbs, however, denote, not a simple repetition, 
but a new idea of an action, in which a repetition of the original action 
is implied : e.g. dicto, dictare, to dictate (dico, to say) ; pulso, to 
beat (pello, to thrust) ; qvasso, to break to pieces (qvatio, to shake) ; 
tracto, to handle (traho, to draw) ; salto, to dance (salio, to leap, 
skip) ; capto, to snatch at (capio, to lay hold of) . (Canto, to sing, 
from cano, to sing and play ; gesto, to carry, from gero, to carry, 
achieve.) 

Obs. Habito, licitor, from habeo, liceor, 2d. 

§ 196. 3. The ending SCO (scere, 3d) is affixed to the stem (in 
the second conjugation retaining the e, in the third with the con- 
necting vowel i) to form inchoative verbs, which denote the begin- 
ning of an action or condition. By far the greater number of 
inchoatives are formed from verbs of the second conjugation, and 
often have a preposition prefixed at the same time : e.g. labasco, 
to begin to stagger (labare) ; calesco, to grow warm ; and inca- 
lesco (caleo), exardesco, efiloresco (ardeo, floreo, not exardeo or 
effloreo), ingemisco, to sigh over (gemo) ; obdormisco, to fall 
asleep (dormio). 

Besides the inchoatives derived from verbs, many are formed in esco 
from adjectives (inchoativa nominalia) ; e.g. maturesco, nigresco, 
mitesco (maturus, niger, mitis). See the Rules for Inflection, §' 141. 
A few are formed from substantives : e.g. puerasco, from puer ; ignes- 
cere, from ignis, to take fire. 

Obs. Concerning verbs in sco (scor), which have an inchoative mean- 
ing, see § 140 and 142. 

§ 197. 4. The ending urio (urire, 4th), added to the stem of the 
supine, forms desideratives, which express an inclination to a thing : 
e.g. esurio, to have a desire to eat, to be hungry ; empturio, to wish 
to buy ; parturio, to be in labor. There are, however, only a few 
such verbs ; and they are little used, except esurio and parturio. 

Obs. Ligurio, scaturio, &c, are not desideratives. 



§ 198 DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 169 

5. The termination illo (illare, 1st), added to the stem, forms some 
few diminutive verbs ; e.g. cantillo, to quaver, from cano. 

6. From some intransitive verbs there are formed, by a change of the 
conjugation, — sometimes, also, by a change in the quantity of the radical 
syllable, — transitive verbs, which signify the causing of that which is 
denoted by the intransitive. From fugio, to fly ; jaceo, to lie ; pendeo, 
to hang, weigh (intrans.) ; liqveo, to be clear, fluid, — come fugo (1st), 
to cause to fly ; jacio, to throw; pendo, to weigh (by hanging up) ; liqvo 
(1st), to clarify. From cado, to fall ; sedeo, to sit, — come caedo, to 

fell; sedo (1st), to pacify. 

Obs. The signification is otherwise altered in sido, to sink ; assido, to 
seat one^s self ; sedeo, to sit ; assideo, to sit by. See also under cubo, 
§119. 



CHAPTER IV. 

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 

§ 198. Adverbs are derived from adjectives (numerals), substan- 
tives (pronouns), and the noun forms of verbs (participles and 
supines), rarely from other adverbs or prepositions. 

Adverbs, which express a way or manner, are derived from adjec- 
tives, by the endings e (o), and ter. 

a. The ending e is affixed to the stem of adjectives and partici- 
ples used adjectively (perf.) of the first and second declension; e.g. 
probe, modeste, libere, aegre (aeger, aegri), docte, ornate. 

Obs. 1. From bonus is formed bene (of the e, see § 19, 2) ; from vali- 
dus, valde. 

Obs. 2. From some adjectives and participles of the second declen- 
sion, there are formed adverbs in o (abl.) ; as, tuto, crebro, neces- 
sario, consulto. From certus are formed both certo and certe, which 
are generally used alike : certe scio and certo comperi (for certain) ; 
certe eveniet, it will certainly happen ; and nihil ita exspectare qvasi 
certo futurum. But, in the signification, at least, we always find 
certe. 1 

b. The ending ter is affixed to the stem of adjectives and participles 
of the third declension (with the connecting vowel i) : e.g. graviter, acri- 

1 The others in o which are used in good writers are arcano, cito, COntinuo, falso, 
fortuito, gratuito, liqyido, manifesto, perpetuo, precario, raro (rare, thinly, 
far apart), secreto, sedulo, serio, sero, auspicato, directo, festinato, necopi- 
nato, improviso, merito {according to one-s deserts) ; and immerito, optato, sor- 
tito {according to lot) ; further, primo, secundo, &c. See § 199, Obs. 2. 



170 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 199 

ter (acer, acris), feliciter (audacter is preferred to audaciter) ; but 
if the stem ends in t, one t is omitted : e.g. sapienter (instead of sapient- 
ter), amanter, solerter. 

Obs. 1. From hilarus and hilaris are formed hilare and hilariter; 
from opulens and opulentus opulenter. 

Obs. 2. From some adjectives in us, there is formed, besides the adverb 
in e, another in ter : e.g. humane and humaniter, firme and fir miter ; 
especially from those in lentus : e.g. luculente and luculenter. (Al- 
ways violenter, usually gnaviter.) 

Obs. 3. From difficilis, alius, and neqvam, are formed difficulter, 
aliter, neqviter. From brevis is formed breviter, briefly ; and brevi> 
shortly, in a short time; from proclivis proclivi (proclive), down- 
wards. 

c. From some adjectives, no proper adverb is formed, but the neuter 
(accus.) serves as an adverb. This is the case with facile (but difficul- 
ter, recens (lately), sublime (on high), multum, plurimum, paullum, 
nimium (but oftener nimis), tantum, qvantum, ceterum, plerumqve, 
potissimum. 

Obs. (Commodum, in the nick of time ; commode, suitably.) On 
the use of neuter adjectives for adverbs by the poets, see Syntax, § 302. 

§ 199. From the cardinal numbers are formed adverbs, which, 
with the exception of the four first, end in ies ; e, o, em, im, inta, 
urn and i being dropped before the ending. These are the follow- 
ing:— 

semel, once (not allied to unus) septies decies 

bis, twice (from duo, by a change duodevicies, or octies decies 

in the pronunciation) undevicies, or novies decies 

ter vicies 

qvater semel et vicies or vicies semel 
qvinqvies (older form, qvin- (not semel vicies) (vicies et 

qviens) semel) 

sexies (sexiens, &c.) bis et vicies or vicies bis (vicies 
septies et bis, &c.) 

octies tricies 

novies qvadragies, &c. 

decies centies 

undecies centies tricies, or centies et tri- 
duodecies cies, &c. 

terdecies, or tredecies ducenties 

qvaterdecies, or qvattuordecies millies (bis millies, decies mil- 
qvinqviesdecies, or qvindecies lies, centies millies, &c.) 

sexies decies, or sedecies 



§ 201 DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 171 

Obs. 1. To these adverbs correspond the pronominal adverbs to ties 
so often ; qvoties, how often 7 (See § 201, 4.) 

Obs. 2. From the ordinals are formed adverbs in urn and o, which are 
employed to signify, for which time: e.g. tertium consul, consul for the 
third time; qvartum consul (eo anno lectisternium, qvinto post 
conditam urbem, habitum est, Liv. VIII. 25) ; or, in enumerations : 
primum, in the first place ; tertium, thirdly. For the first time, first, is 
generally expressed by primum ; primo usually signifies, in the begin- 
ning, from the beginning. For the second time, is expressed by iterum 
(secundum is not used) ; instead of secundo, secondly, the Latins 
more frequently say deinde, turn. For the remaining numbers, the forms 
in um are the most usual, particularly in the signification of a certain 
number of times. For the last time, is expressed by ultimum (postre- 
mum, eztremum) ; now for the last time, hoc ultimum ; then for the 
last time, illud ultimum. 

§ 200. a. Some adverbs are formed from substantives by means 
of the ending ltus, to denote a proceeding from something: e.g. 
funditus, from the foundation; radicitus. The following are 
formed in the same way from adjectives : antiqyitus, from times 
of yore ; divinitus, by divine ordering ; humailitus, after the man- 
ner of men. 

b. By atim (as if from supines of the first conjugation) adverbs are 
formed from substantives and adjectives, denoting in this or that way; 
e.o-. catervatim, gregatim, gradatim; vicatim, by streets, from street 
to street ; singulatim, severally ; privatim, as an individual. 

Obs. The following are formed without a : tributim, by tribes ; viri- 
tim, man by man; furtim (fur), ubertim (uber). 

c. By the termination im, adverbs are formed from the supine, to 
denote the way and manner: e.g. caesim, punctim, by striking, by 
stabbing: carptim, by snatches ; separatim, separately ; passim, here and 
there (scattered, and without order, pando). (Mordicus, with the teeth, 
from mordeo, is formed quite irregularly) . 

§ 201. From the pronouns are formed adverbs, which denote 
place, time, degree, number, manner, and cause, and have the same 
power of expressing the relation of things which the pronouns have. 
For each idea (of place, time, &c.) there are formed correlative 
adverbs corresponding to the different classes of pronouns, — de- 
monstrative, relative, and interrogative, indefinite relative, and 
indefinite. The relative adverbs connect the sentence to which they 
belono- with another, and are conjunctions : the adverbs of place 



172 LATIN GRAMMAR. §201 

differ according as they signify remaining in a place, or motion to a 
place, from a place, or on a certain road. 

1. Adverbs of place : — 

a. (in a place) demonstr. ibi, there ; hie, here ; istic, there, there by 
you ; illic, there ; ibidem, in that same place ; alibi, elsewhere : relative 
and interrogative, ubi, where; where? indefinite relative, ubicunqve, 
ubiubi, wherever: indefinite, alicubi, uspiam, usqvam, anywhere (nus-> 
qvam, nowhere ; utrobiqve, in both places) : indefinite universal, ubi- 
vis, ubiqve, ubilibet, in any place you will, everywhere. 

b. (to a place) demonstr. eo, thither (hue, istuc, and isto, illuc and 
illo, eodem, alio) ; relative and interrogative, qvo (utro, of two) ; 
indefinite relative, quocunqve, qvoqvo; indefinite, aliqvo*, usqvam 
(nusqvam, utroqve) ; indefinite universal, qvovis, qvolibet. 

c. (from a place) demonstr. inde, thence (hinc, istinc, illinc, indi- 
dem, aliunde) ; relative and interrog., unde ; indef. relative, undecun- 
qve (rarely undeunde) ; indefinite, alicunde (utrinqve) ; indefinite 
universal, undiqve, undelibet. 

d. (on the road) demonstr., ea, on that road (hac, istac, ilia, and 
iliac, eadem, alia) ; relative and interrogative, qva ; indefinite relative, 
qvacunqve (qvaqva) ; indefinite, aliqva ; indefinite universal, qvavis, 
qvalibet. 

2. Adverbs of time: demonstr., turn, then (tunc); interrogative, 
qvando, when? (ecqvando, whether ever?) ; relative, qvum, when, as ; 
indefinite relative, qvandocunqve, qvandoqve, whenever ; indefinite, 
aliqvando, once (qvandoqve, rarely qvandocunqve), unqvam, ever 
(nunqvam, never) . 

Obs. 1. In place of the indefinite pronominal adverbs derived from 
aliqvis (alicubi, &c), shorter forms, derived from qvis, are used after 
the conjunctions ne, num, si, and nisi, which are the same as the longer 
forms with the removal of ali: e.g. necubi, that nowhere; neqvo, ne- 
cunde, ne qva, ne qvando. 

Obs. 2. Ubicunqve, qvocunqve, undec\mqve (undeunde), rarely 
occur without a relative signification, as indefinite words expressing uni- 
versality. 

3. Adverbs of degree : demonstr., tarn, so (so very); relative and 
interrogative, qvam, as, how? indefinite relative, qvamvis, qvamlibet, 
how much soever. 

4. Adverbs of number: demonstr., toties, so often; relative 
and interrogative, qvoties (so often) as, how often? indefinite 
relative, qvotiescunqve, how often soever ; indefinite, aliqvoties, some- 
times. 

5. Adverbs which express way and manner: demonstr., ita, sic, so, in 
this way (corresponding to is and hie) ; relative and interrogative, ut, 



§203 FORMATION OF WORDS BY COMPOSITION. 173 

uti, as, how ? (qvi, how ?) ; indef. relative, utcunqve (utut). (In later 
writers, qvaliter, rarely taliter.) 

6. Adverbs of the cause: demonstr., eo, therefore ; relative, qvod 
qvia, because ; interrogative, cur, wherefore ? 

From these adverbs, others are again formed by composition ; e.g. 
eatenus, qvatenus, &c. (See § 202, Obs.) 

§ 202. Some adverbs are yet to be noticed, which denote rela- 
tions of place. 

a. In o (as in eo, qvo, &c), from prepositions (or adverbs), to 
express motion to a place ; citro, ulfcro (to that side ; then, of one's 
own accord, into the bargain), intro, porro (forwards, further, from 
pro), retro (re). 

6. In orsum, orsus, oversum, oversus (from versus), to denote 
a direction to one side, from pronouns and prepositions ; horsum, 
qvorsum, aliorsurn, aliqvoversum, qvoqvoversus, prorsum, for- 
wards (prorsus, completely, throughout), retrorsum (rursum, rursus, 
again), introrsum, sursum (from sub), deorsum, seorsum. (Dex- 
trorsum, sinistrorsum.) (Extrinsecus, from without, intrinsecus, 
from within, are opposites.) 

c. fariam, in — places, in — parts, from numerals ; bifariam, quadri- 
fariam, (multif ariam) . 

Obs. Some of the remaining derivative adverbs are substantives in 
a certain case (sometimes in an obsolete form), used with a special 
meaning: e.g. partim (old accusative from pars), forte (fors), 
temperi, vesperi, noctu (noz ; interdiu, by day) , mane, foris (esse, 
out of the house, from home), foras (ire, out of doors). Others are 
compounds of a case and a governing word ; e.g. hactenus, qvemad- 
modum (interea, praeterea, propterea, antea, postea, with an unusual 
construction). In nudiustertius, the day before yesterday, nudius- 
qvartus, nudiusqvintus, &c, words grammatically connected are 
fused into one by the pronunciation (nunc dies tertius, qvartus, &c, 
viz. est). 



CHAPTEK V. 

THE FORMATION OF NEW WORDS BY COMPOSITION. 

§ 203. By composition two words are formed into a new com- 
pound word (verbum compositum, as opposed to verbum simplex), 
the meaning of which is made up of the meaning of the two com- 
pounded words. 



174 LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§204 



If two words are used in a fixed order to denote a single idea, 
but are yet syntactically combined as separate words, each with its 
proper grammatical form, the composition is termed spurious. Such 
compounds are formed from a substantive and adjective, which are 
both declined: e.g. respublica, the state; jusjurandum, an oath 
(§ 53) ; or, from a genitive and a governing word : e.g. senatus- 
consultum, verisimilis. The words thus connected may occasion- 
ally be separated, especially by qve and ve; resqve publica, 
senatusve consulta (res vero publica). 

Obs. Even in genuine compounds of a verb (or participle) with a 
preposition or the negative in, the older poets occasionally separate 
the particle from the verb by qve : e.g. inqve ligatus, for illigatus- 
que, bound up (Virg.) ; inqve salutatus, for insalutatusqve, un- 
greeted (Yirg.) ; so also hactenus, eatenus, qvadamtenus, by a word 
interposed: e.g. qvadam prodire tenus (Hor.). In prose, this 
separation (tmesis) 1 is sometimes used with the intensive per: e.g. per 
mihi mirum visum est; pergratum per qve jucundum, with an 
unaccented word in the middle. (On qvicunqve, qvilibet, see § 87, 
Obs. 2.) 

§ 204. The first part of the compound may be a noun (substan- 
tive, adjective, or numeral), an adverb, a preposition, or one of 
those particles which occur only in composition as prefixes. These 
are the following : — 

Amb, round (round about), dis, on different sides (from each other, 
in two), re (red), back (again), se, aside, which denote the local 
relations of the action, and are commonly named inseparable preposi- 
tions (e.g. ambedere, to eat round about ; discerpere, to tear in pieces ; 
recedere, to retreat ; secedere, to go aside) ; and the negative particle in 
(in-, tin-). Some verbs, mostly intransitive, are found as the first 
member of a compound, with facere; e.g. calefacio. 

Obs. 1. Amb is altered into am in amplector, amputo; into an 
before c (q) : e.g. anceps, anqviro. (Anfr actus, anhelo.) 

Dis remains unaltered before c (q), p, t (discedo, disqviro, dis- 
puto, distraho), and before s with a vowel following (dissolvo) ; 
before f the s is assimilated (differo, diffringo) ; before the other con- 
sonants it is changed to di (dido, digero, dimitto, dinumero, diripio, 
discindo, disto, divello; but disjicio, properly disicio; drjungo, and 
sometimes disjungo) ; this di is long, but in dirimo, from disemo, the 
preposition is short. (Otherwise dis is not used before vowels.) 

1 Tmesis, a cutting, from refivu, to cut. 



§ 205 FORMATION OF WORDS BY COMPOSITION. 175 

Re before vowels becomes red (redargue redeo, redigo, redoleo, 
redundo, redhibeo). (So also seditio, from se and eo ; in no other 
instance is se used before a vowel.) Re is short, but (in verse) is 
lengthened in recido, religio, reliqviae (rarely in reduco). In the 
perfect of reperio, repello, refero, and retundo, the first consonant 
of the verb was pronounced (and in older times also written) double ; 
repperi, reppuli, rettuli, rettudi (from the reduplicated pepuli, &c). 

Obs. 2. The negative in is only compounded with adjectives and 
adverbs, and with some few participles, which have assumed altogether 
the character of adjectives : e.g. incultus, uncultivated ; indoctus, 
unlearned ; and with substantives, in order to form negative adjectives 
or substantives: e.g. informis, shapeless, ugly, from forma; infamis 
(fama) ; injuria, injury, from jus. It is varied before consonants like 
the preposition in. (Some compounds of participles with the negative 
in must be carefully distinguished from the participles which resemble 
them, from verbs compounded with the preposition in: e.g. infectus, 
undone (in and factus) ; and infectus, dyed (inficio) ; indictus, not 
said; and indictus, ordered, imposed (indico). In good style, how- 
ever, the negative compound of the participle is rarely used when the 
verb is found compounded with in; so that, e.g. immixtus signifies 
only mixed (immisceo) ; infractus, broken (infringo) ; but unmixed, 
unbroken, are expressed by non mixtus, non fractus.) 

Obs. 3. Ve (of rare occurrence) has also a negative signification in 
vecors, vegrandis, vesanus. In some compounds ne (nee) is made 
use of; e.g. neqveo, nefas (necopinatus, negotium). 1 

Obs. 4. It is only in composition that we find sesqvi, one and a half; 
e.g. sesqvipes (whence sesqvipedalis). Semi, from semis (gen. 
semissis) , is used in compounds to denote half. 

§ 205. a. If the first member be a noun, the second is affixed to 
its stem (omitting the inflectional endings, and a and u in the first, 
second, and fourth declensions). If the second member begins with 
a consonant, the connecting vowel i is often inserted ; e.g. causidi- 
cus, magnanimus, corniger, aedifico, lucifuga. (Naufragus with 
a diphthong from navis, frango.) 

Obs. 1. In some words, however, the connecting vowel is not em- 
ployed; e.g. puerpera (puer, pario), muscipula (mus, capio). 
Hence the final consonant of the first member has been dropped in the 
pronunciation of some words ; e.g. lapicida (lapis, lapid-is, and 
caedo), homicida (homin-is). (Opifex, from opus, facio). 

1 ~Ne is short in neqveo and nefas, and the words allied to it (nefarius, nefandus, 
nefastus), long in other words (neqvam, neqvitia, neqvaqvam, neqvicqvam, 
nedum). Nee is short. 



176 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 206 

Obs. 2. The connecting vowel o (u) is rare: ahenobarbus, brazen- 
beard; Trojugena. 

Obs. 3. For the adverbs formed from adjectives, the stem of the ad- 
jectives is used, except bene and male (svaviloqvus, but beneficus). 

b. In the radical syllable of the second member of a compound word, 
the vowels a and ae are more frequently, but not always, changed 
according to § 5, c; and the same is true of e in the open radical syllable 
of some verb-stems (see the examples in Chaps. XVII., XVIII., XIX., 
XX.) ; iuimicus (amicus), inermus (arma). (A is altered to u 
before 1; e.g. calco, inculco.) 

Obs. Exceptions, like permaneo, contraho, perfremo, inhaereo, 
may be seen elsewhere ; concavus. 

c. The compound word generally retains the grammatical form of the 
last member, if it belongs to the same class of words ; e.g. inter-rex, 
dis-similis, per-ficio. Yet substantives and verbs sometimes vary. 
See e. 

d. If the compound word belongs to a different class of words from 
the last member, a suitable grammatical form is given to the stem of the 
latter : e.g. maledicus, from male and dico ; opifex, from opus and 
facio (fac), with the nominative ending s. 

Obs. Sometimes, however, the ending of a substantive is suitable to 
the adjective compounded from it : as, crassipes, from crassus and pes; 
discolor, from dis and color. 

e. Sometimes a particular derivative ending is affixed, corresponding 
to the signification of the new word, so that it is formed at once by 
composition and derivation : e.g. exardesco, from ex and ardeo, with 
the inchoative form ; latifundium, from latus and fundus ; Trans- 
alpine, from trans Alpes. 



§ 206. The compound words may be referred to various classes 
according to the various ways in which the compound signification 
is deduced from the meaning of the simple words. These are : — 

a. Composita determinativa, in which the first word defines the 
meaning of the last more exactly after the manner of an adjective 
or adverb. In this way prepositions, prefixes, and adjectives are set 
before substantives : as, cognomen, interrex, dedecus, injuria, nefas, 
viviradix ; more frequently prepositions, prefixes, and adverbs are put 
before adjectives or verb-stems, in order to form adjectives : e.g. sub- 
rusticus, somewhat clownish ; consimilis, tercentum, beneficus, 
altisbnus. (Exinde, desuper.) A great class of verbs especially is 
thus compounded with prepositions (also with amb, dis, re, se), (see 
Chaps. XVII., XVIII. , XIX., XX.) ; rarely with adverbs (maledico, 



§ 206 FORMATION OF WORDS BY COMPOSITION. 177 

satisfacio) . (Subirascor, subvereor, to become a little angry, to be a 
little afraid.) 

Obs. 1. The composition of a verb already compounded with a new 
preposition (by which a vocab. decompositum is formed) is not com- 
mon in Latin, except with super; e.g. superimpendo. (Recondo, 
abscondo, assurgo, consurgo, deperdo, dispereo, recognosco, since 
condo, surgo, perdo, pereo, and cognosco are considered as simple 
verbs ; repercutio, repromitto, subinvideo, to envy a little. A few 
others are found in inferior writers.) 

Obs. 2. Some substantives of this class take the ending ium, and 
denote a collection, a portion; e.g. latifundium (lati fundi), cavae- 
dium, triennium (biduum, triduum, qvatriduum, from dies). From 
sexviri (seviri), the sixmen (as a board), and similar words, comes the 
singular sexvir, &c, of a member of such a fraternity. (Duumvir, 
triumvir, plur. duoviri, tresviri, and duumviri, triumviri.) 

b. Composita constructa, in which one member is considered as 
grammatically governed by the other : they are divided again into two 
classes. 

1. The first member is a substantive, or a word put for a substantive, 
which may generally be conceived of as an accusative (object), sometimes 
as an ablative, governed by the second member, which is a verb. In 
this way are formed especially substantives, mostly personal names 
(without an ending affixed, or with the nominative ending s, or in a, us) : 
e.g. signifer (signum fero), agricola, opifex, causidicus, tubicen 
(tuba cano), tibicen (for tibiicen), funambulus (in fune ambulo); 
also neuters in ium, naufragium, and some adjectives : e.g. magnificus; 
with others in ficus, letifer, and verbs : e.g. belligero, animadverto, 
tergiversor (with a frequentative form, and as a deponent), amplifico, 
aedifico, gratificor, from facio. 

Obs. 1. In stillicidium, gallicinium, the first member is to be con- 
sidered as a genitive governed by the verb (stillarum casus). 

Obs. 2. Compounds are formed in a similar way from an intransitive 
verb-stem and facio: e.g. calefacio, to cause to be warm (caleo, to 
warm) ; tremefacio, expergefacio, to awake (trans.) ; assvefacio, to 
accustom to a thing. 1 (Condocefacio, commonefacio, perterrefacio, 
from transitive verbs, only express the agency more emphatically.) 

2. The first member is a preposition, the second a substantive or a 
word put for a substantive, which is to be conceived of as governed by the 
preposition. Thus are formed, — 1. adjectives: e.g. intercus (aqva), 
particularly by adding the endings anus, inus, aneus (e.g. ante- 
signanus, Transpadanus, suburbanus, Trans tiberinus, circum- 

1 For the sake of the versification, the poets sometimes hare tepefacio, liqvefit, &c, 
instead of tepefacio, liqvefit, &c. 

12 



178 LATIN GRAMMAR. §206 

foraneus) ; 2. verbs of the first, more rarely of the fourth, conjugation, 
which denote to bring into a given relation : e.g. segregare (to bring 
away from the grex), insinuare (in sinum), irretire (in rete), 
erudire (to bring out of rudeness}. The verbs, however, which are so 
formed with ex, often denote only to make into something : e.g. effemi- 
nare, explanare, efferare (§ 193, Obs. 1, § 194, Obs. 1). 

c. Composita possessiva, which are adjectives compounded of an 
adjective (numeral, participle) , a substantive, or a preposition, for their 
first member, and a substantive for their second, and denote in what way 
some subject has that which is expressed by the last member of the 
compound word : e.g. crassipes (one that has thick feet, thickfoot, thick- 
footed), qvadripes, alipes (wingfooted) , trimestris (three-monthly, 
what has three months), concolor (of a like color), concors, affinis 
(that which has its boundary on something) ; decolor (that which has no 
color, colorless) , exsors (for which there is no lot) , expers, enervis, 
informis (which is without form, shapeless, ugly), inermus, unarmed. 

Obs. 1. If the substantive belongs to the third declension, adjectives 
of one ending are formed (concors, excors, &c, with a nominative 
ending ; bimaris, of two endings) ; from substantives of the first and 
second declensions are formed adjectives in us, as bifurcus ; but fre- 
quently also in is, if the preceding syllable be long by position : elin- 
gvis, enervis (bicornis) . In some the ending is variable. See § 59, 
Obs. 3. 

Obs. 2. In the numerals in decim the two members are added. 



SYNTAX, 



RULES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 

§ 207. Syntax teaches how words are combined to make 
connected discourse. The inflections of words are employed, 
partly to show how the words in a proposition are mutually 
related and connected (First part of the Syntax), partly to 
define the relations of the whole proposition ; viz., the mode 
of the assertion, and the time of the fact asserted (Second 
part). Besides the inflections, the succession and order of 
the words and propositions also serve to give precision to 
discourse (Third part). 

Obs. In Latin, as in other languages, the regular order of the words 
is sometimes changed, because attention is paid rather to the sense than 
to the words and their grammatical form. This is called constructio 
ad sententiam, synesim. Sometimes, too, a convenient rather than a 
strictly accurate form of expression is aimed at. The irregularities 
hence arising, which, in some cases, have become established by use, 
may generally be reduced to three kinds, either to an abbreviated form 
of expression (elUpsis), where something is omitted which the mind 
must supply, or to a superfluous expression (pleonasmus) 2 or to attrac- 
tion (attractio), where the form of one word is determined by another, 
though not standing in exactly the same relation. Such peculiarities of 
expression are sometimes termed figures of speech, or figures of syntax, 
to distinguish them from rhetorical figures of speech, which do not affect 
the grammatical form. 

1 The Greek word avvra^tc denotes a joining or arranging together. 

2 *EA/l£tf/;if, deficiency; TrteovaOfLog, redundancy. 



PART FIRST. 

THE COMBINATION OF WOEDS IN A PROPOSITION. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE PARTS OF A PROPOSITION. AGREEMENT OF THE SUBJECT 
AND PREDICATE, THE SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 

§ 208. a. Discourse consists of propositions. A propo- 
sition is a combination of words, which asserts (or re- 
quires) something (an action, condition, or quality) of 
another. A complete proposition consists of two principal 
parts : the subject, or that of which something is asserted ; 
and the predicate, or that which is asserted of the subject. 1 
It is in some cases unnecessary to designate the subject 
by a separate word, since the ending of the verb often 
indicates it; e.g. eo, I go. 

Obs. 1. An action maybe said to take place without being referred to 
a definite subject (impersonally). See § 218. 

Obs. 2. Sometimes a proposition is not fully stated, because the words 
which are not expressed may easily be understood from the context, as, 
for example, in answers. 

b. The subject of a proposition is expressed by a substantive (or 
several substantives combined), or another word used as a substan- 
tive ; viz., either a pronoun : e.g. ego ; or an adjective, which names 
persons or things according to some particular quality : e.g. boni, 
the good ; bona, good things, what is good; or by an infinitive: e.g. 
vinci turpe est ; or by any word used only to denote its own sound 
and form : e.g. v i d e s habet duas syllabas, (the word) vides has 
two syllables. 



1 Subjectum (subjicio), properly what is laid underneath, the foundation {the subject 
of the discourse) ; praedicatum, from praedicare, to assert. 



§ 209 PARTS OF A PROPOSITION. 181 

Obs. 1. Something may also be asserted of the contents of a whole 
proposition, and it may therefore stand for the subject, having its 
predicate in the neuter gender; e.g. qvod domum emisti, gratum 
mini est. 

Obs. 2. If the subject be a personal pronoun, it is usually omitted, 
being known from the ending of the verb : e.g. curro, curris ; in the 
same way, is, Tie, as the subject, is often omitted. (See §§ 321, 482, and 
484, a.) 

Obs. 3. In the imperative proposition in the second person, the predi- 
cate is not combined with the subject, but is addressed to the subject, the 
name of which may be added in the vocative. 

§ 209. a. The predicate consists either of a verb (whether active 
or passive), which by itself denotes a definite action, condition, or 
character : e.g. arbor crescit, arbor viret, arbor caeditur (simple 
predicate) ; or of a verb which does not in itself denote a definite 
action, condition, or character, and an adjective (participle) or sub- 
stantive with it as a predicate noun, by which the subject is defined 
and described : e.g. urbs est splendida ; dens est auctor mundi 
(resolved predicate). 

Obs. 1. A substantive or adjective, used as a predicate noun, may 
sometimes be represented in the predicate by a neuter demonstrative or 
relative pronoun ; e.g. Nee tamen ille erat sapiens, qvis enim hoc 
fuit ? (Cic. Fin. IV. 24.) Qvod ego fui ad Trasimenum, id tu hodie 
es (Liv. XXX. 30) . The adverbs satis, abunde, nimis, parum, may be 
used as predicate nouns. 

Obs. 2. On the supplying of the verb from the context, and its omis- 
sion by ellipsis, see §§ 478, 479. 

b. Besides sum, those verbs are also used as incomplete in them- 
selves, and are therefore combined with a predicate noun, which 
denote to become, and to remain (fio, evado, maneo) ; as well . as 
the passives of many others, signifying to name, to make, to hold, 
or consider, &c, w r hich are completed by the simple addition of the 
words which denote what a thing is named, what it is made, and 
for what it is held ; eg.: — 

Caesar creatus est consul; Aristides habitus est justissimus. 

(See § 221, and, on the active of these verbs, § 227.) 

Obs. 1. It is not quite correct to call sum the copula, and the sub- 
joined word alone the predicate. 

Obs. 2. Instead of being joined to a predicate noun in the nominative, 
esse may be combined with some other expression, which serves to de- 



182 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 211 

scribe or define, as, for instance, with a genitive ; esse alicujus, esse 
magni pretii, of great value, pluris ; or with a preposition and its case, or 
with an adverb of place, to denote the place or relation in which a thing 
is : esse in Gallia, in magno timore, prope esse, praesto esse. (Esse 
pro hoste, to be accounted an enemy.) Sometimes, also, in familiar lan- 
guage, sum is used with an adverb which denotes way and manner (ita, 
sic, ut), instead of an adjective ; e.g. Ita sum, sic est vita hominum 
(= talis). So also we find the expressions, recte sunt omnia (all is 
well) ; more rarely, inceptum frustra fuit, impune fuit. The follow- 
ing are used impersonally : ita est, sic est, 50 it is ; contra est ; bene 
est, it is well; melius est alicui, some one is better off. Esse is used as a 
verb of complete and independent meaning, signifying to exist ; est 
Deus. The other verbs above cited may also be used with a complete 
and independent meaning ; e.g. Verres ab omnibus nominatur. 

Obs. 3. Some verbs express only a relation to an action or suffering, 
which action is then given by the addition of another verb in the infinitive, 
the predicate thus becoming more complex: e.g. cogito proficisci; 
cupio haberi bonus; videor esse magnus (often, videor magnus). 

§ 210. a. The predicate may be more definitely limited by ad- 
verbs, and by substantives or words used substantively, which give 
the object and circumstances of the action ; e.g. Caesar Pompejum 
magno praelio vicit. 1 

b. A substantive may be connected in a certain relation with 
another substantive in order to define it more accurately ; e.g. pater 
patriae. To every substantive also there may be added other sub- 
stantives descriptive of the same person or thing, to define or char- 
acterize it more closely ; e.g. Tarqvinius, rex Romanorum. The 
subjoining of these is called apposition, and that which is subjoined 
is said to be in apposition. 

c. To every substantive may be added adjectives (participles), 
which may be again denned by a substantive in a certain case ; e.g. 
vir utilis civitati svae, a man useful to his state. 

Obs. An adjective; which is immediately connected with the substan- 
tive, is called attributive (vir bonus), to distinguish it from that which is 
used as a predicate with the verb sum ; vir est bonus. 

§ 211. a. The verb of the predicate agrees in number and per- 
son with the subject : pater aegrotat ; ego valeo ; nos dolemus ; 
vos gaudetis. 

1 Objectum from objicio, that which is placed over against the action and exposed 
to it. 



§ 212 PARTS OF A PROPOSITION. 183 

Obs. 1. We must here remark of the first person, that, in Latin, a 
man sometimes speaks of himself in the first person plural (see § 483 ; 
and of the second, that, in certain kinds of propositions, the second per- 
son singular of the verb in the subjunctive is used of a hypothetical sub- 
ject in the same way as you is often employed in English. See § 370, 
and § 494, Obs. 5. (On the phrase, uterqve nostrum veniet, see 
§ 284, Obs. 3.) 

Obs. 2. The third person plural is sometimes used without a definite 
subject to denote a common saying (ajunt, dicunt, ferunt, narrant, &c), 
or the general use of a term (appellant, vocant), or a general opinion 
(putant, credunt), and also, when the verb vulgo is introduced, to 
express what persons in general do ; Vulgo ex oppidis gratulabantur 
Pompejo (Cic. Tusc. I. 35). Saturnum mazime vulgo colunt ad 
occidentem (Id. K D. III. 17). 

b. The predicate adjective or participle agrees with the subject 
in number, gender, and case ; in the same way every adjective 
(partic.) is regulated by the substantive with which it is con- 
nected : — 

Feminae timidae sunt. Hujus hominis actiones malae sunt, 
consilia pejora. 

A personal or reflective pronoun used as a subject has the gender 
which belongs to the name of the person or thing for which it 
stands ; Vos (you women) laetae estis. 

Obs. 1. A neuter predicate adjective may be joined to a subject of 
the masculine or feminine gender, to denote a being of a certain class in 
general (substantively) ; e.g. variuni et mutabile semper femina 
(Virg. JEn. IV. 569), woman is always a changeable and inconsistent 
being ; varia et mutabilis s. fern., a icoman is always changeable and in- 
consistent. Turpitudo pejus est (something ivorse) qvam dolor (Cic. 
Tusc. II. 13). 

Obs. 2. If the subject has for its predicate a personal name, which has a 
distinct form for the masculine and feminine gender, that form is preferred 
which corresponds to the gender of the subject : Stilus est optimus 
dicendi magister ; philosophia est magistra vitae. The same rule 
applies to apposition; e.g. moderator cupiditatis pudor (Cic). Ef- 
fectrix beatae vitae sapientia (Cic). (But Qvid dicam de the- 
sauro omnium rerum memoria? Cicero de Or. I. 5.) 

§ 212. If two or more subjects of different persons are spoken of 
at the same time, the verb is in the first person plural, if one of the 
subjects is of this person ; and with the second, if one of the subjects 
is of this and none of the first person : — 



184 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 213 

Ego et uxor ambulavimus ; tu et uxor tua ambulavistis. Haec 
neqve ego neqve tu fecimus. (Ter. Ad. I. 2, 23.) 

Obs. 1. If two subjects have the same verb, and this is predicated of 
each of them separately, and with the addition of different circumstances, 
the predicate is put in the plural where it is intended to give promi- 
nence to what is common and similar in the two transactions : Ego te 
poetis ( = apud poetas), Messala antiqvariis criminabimur (Dial, 
de Orat. 42) . But where a contrast is to be forcibly expressed, the predi- 
cate is usually regulated by the nearest subject : e.g. Ego sententiam, 
tu verba defendis. So, also, sometimes, with et — et: e.g. et ego et 
Cicero meus flagitabit (Cicero ad Att. IV. 17) ; and always so, when, 
to a single denned individual; there is added a general designation of 
others, who are in no way related to him : Et tu et omnes homines 
sciunt (Cicero ad Fam. XIII. 8) . 

Obs. 2. When the predicate is placed with the first subject, and the 
others follow, the first only is regarded ; e.g. Et ego hoc video et vos 
et iUi. 

§ 213. a. Two or more connected subjects of the third person 
singular take the predicate (1) in the plural, if importance be at- 
tached to the number as well as to the connection, which is gener- 
ally the case with living beings : — 

Castor et Pollux ex eqvis pugnare visi sunt (Cic. N. D. II. 2) ; 
pater et avus mortui sunt (both of them) . 

Also, when persons and things are connected ; Syphax regnumqve 
ejus in potestate Romanorum erant (Liv. XXVIII. 18) . 

2. In the singular, when the subjects are considered collectively 
as a whole ; e.g. : — 

Senatus populusqve Romanus intelligit (Cic. ad Fam. V. 8). This 
is often the case with things and impersonal ideas, one idea being ex- 
pressed by several words, or several ideas, which are connected, being 
considered as one : e.g. Tempus necessitasqve postulat (Cic. Off. I. 
23). Religio et fides anteponatur amicitiae (Id. Off. III. 11). 
Divitias gloria, imperium, potentia seqvebatur (Sail. Cat. 12). 

But when the things and ideas are expressed as distinct and opposed, 
the verb stands in the plural : e.g. Jus et injuria natura dijudicantur 
(Cic. Legg. I. 16) . Mare magnum et ignara ( = ignota) lingva 
commercia prohibebant (Sail. Jug. 18). 

Obs. 1. Sometimes, when the subjects are personal appellations, the 
verb is used in the singular, because each individual is thought of sepa- 
rately, and the verb drawn to the nearest subject : e.g. Et proavus L. 



§ 214 PARTS OF A PROPOSITION. 185 

Murenae et avus praetor fuit (Cic. pro Mur. 7). 1 Orgetorigis filia 
et unus e filiis captus est (Cses. B. G. I. 26). This occurs especially 
when the verb precedes : Dixit hoc apud vos Zosippus et Ismenias 
(Cic. Verr. IV. 42) J otherwise, very rarely. 

5. When subjects of the singular and plural (in the third person) 
are connected, and the predicate stands nearest that in the singular, 
the verb may also be put in the singular, provided that this subject 
is made more particularly prominent or considered separately ; 
otherwise, the verb is in the plural ; e.g. : — 

Ad corporum sanationem multum ipsa corpora et natura valet 
(Cic. Tusc. III. 3) . Hoc mihi et Peripatetici et vetus Academia 
concedit (Cic. Acad. II. 35). Consulem prodigia atqve eorum 
procuratio Romae tenuerunt (Liv. XXXII. 9). 

Ons. 1. If the subjects are connected by the disjunctive particle aut, 
the predicate is sometimes regulated (both in gender and number) by 
the nearest subject ; sometimes, it is put in the plural : Probarem hoc, 
si Socrates aut Antisthenes diceret (Cic. Tusc. V. 9). Non, si 
qvid Socrates aut Aristippus contra consvetudinern civilem 
fecerunt, idem ceteris licet (Id. Off. I. 41). But with aut — aut 
vel — vel, neqve — neqve, the predicate is almost always regulated by 
the nearest subject : e.g. In hominibus juvandis aut mores spectari 
aut fortuna solet (Cic. Off. II. 20). Nihil mihi novi neqve M. 
Crassus neqve Cn. Pompejus ad dicendum reliqvit (Cic. pro 
Balbo, 7). The plural occurs very seldom : Nee justitia nee amicitia 
esse omnino poterunt nisi ipsae per se expetantur (Cic. Fin. III. 
21) ; except when the subjects are of different persons ; for then the 
plural is generally employed (according to § 212) : Haec neqve ego 
neqve tu fecimus (Ter.). 

Ons. 2. If the subjects are not connected by conjunctions, but the 
sentence is divided into several clauses by the repetition of a word 
(anaphora), the predicate is found both in the singular (as referring to 
the nearest clause) and (more rarely) in the plural : Nihil libri, nihil 
litterae, nihil doctrina prodest (Cic. ad Att. IX. 10). Qvid ista 
repentina affinitatis conjunctio, qvid ager Campanus, qvid effusio 
pecuniae significant? (Cic. ad Att. II. 17). 

§ 214. a. If the subjects connected are of different gender, the 
adjective or participle of the predicate is regulated in gender, pro- 
vided the singular be used (§ 213, a, 2) by the nearest subject; 



1 Et Q. Maximus et L. Paullus et M. Cato iis temporibus fuerunt (Cic. ad 
Fam. IV. 6), all lived at that time. 



186 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 214 

Animus et consilium et sententia civitatis posita est in legibus 

(Cic. pro Cluent. 53). 

b. If, on the contrary, the plural is employed, then the gender in 
the case of living beings is masculine ; Uxor mea et filius mortui 
sunt. The neuter gender is used of things and impersonal ideas : 
Secundae res, honores, imperia, victoriae fortuita sunt (Cic. Off. 
II. 6). Tempus et ratio belli administrandi libera praetori per- 
missa sunt (Liv. XXXV. 25). The gender may, however, be 
regulated by the nearest subject, when this is itself in the plural 
(so that the plural of the predicate may be referred to it alone) : 
Visae nocturno tempore faces ardorqve caeli (Cic. in Cat. III. 
8). Brachia modo atqve humeri liberi ab aqva erant (Caes. B. 
G. VIL 56). 

Obs. In case of the combination of living beings (of the male sex) 
with objects devoid of life, either the masculine is employed (when the 
latter have at the same time some reference to living beings) ; Rex 
regiaque classis una profecti (Liv. XXI. 50) ; or the neuter (so that 
the whole is considered as a thing) : Roman! regem regnuniqve 
Macedoniae sua futura sciunt (Liv. XL. 10), their property. Natura 
inimica sunt libera civitas et rex (Liv. XLIV. 24), hostile beings. 
If the nearest subject be itself in the plural, the gender may be deter- 
mined by that alone : Patres decrevere, legates sortesqve oraculi 
Pythici exspectandas (Liv. V. 15) ; and this is always the case when 
the predicate stands first : Missae eo cohortes qvattuor et C. Annius 
praefectus (Sail. Jug. 77). 

c. Even with connected subjects of the same gender, which are not 
living beings, the predicate, when the plural is used, is often in the 
neuter : Ira et avaritia imperio potentiora erant (Liv. XXXVII. 
32) . Nox atqve praeda hostes remorata sunt (Sail. Jug. 38) . 

d. An adjective which is annexed as an attribute to two or more 
substantives, is regulated by the nearest ; e.g. : — 

Omnes agri et maria ; agri et maria omnia (for the sake of per- 
spicuity, often expressed thus : agri omnes omniaqve maria) . Cae- 
saris omni et gratia et opibus sic fruor ut meis (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9). 

Obs. 1. If adjectives are introduced as a special characteristic in 
apposition, they are treated according to the rule under b ; e.g. labor 
voluptasqve dissimillima natura, societate qvadam inter se juncta 
sunt (Liv. Y. 4), things which by nature are very different. (Other- 
wise, very seldom ; Gallis natura corpora animosqve magna magis 
qvam firma dedit, Liv. V. 44.) 



§ 215 PARTS OF A PROPOSITION. 187 

Obs. 2. If several adjectives are attached to a substantive in such a 
way as to suggest the notion of several different things of the same name, 
the substantive is put either in the singular or plural ; but if it be the 
subject, it always takes a plural predicate : Legio Martia qvartaqve 
rempublicam defendunt (Cic. Phil. V. 17) ; prima et vicesima 
legiones (Tac. Ann. I. 31). In the same way, it is also said of two 
men with a common name : Cn. et P. Scipiones (Cic. pro Balb. 15) ; 
more rarely, Ti. et C. Gracchus (Sail. Jug. 42) ; but Cn. Scipio et L. 
Scipio. 

Obs. 3. (On §§ 212-214). In some few instances it happens that 
regard is paid, in the treatment of the predicate, only to the more remote 
subject as the essential one, to which the nearer is only supplementary ; 
e.g. Ipse meiqve vescor (Hor. S. II. 6, 66). 

§ 215. The nature and character of the subject are sometimes 
more regarded in the predicate than the grammatical form of the 
word employed. 

a. With collective nouns used of living beings, some prose-writers, 
and the poets occasionally, join a plural predicate of the gender to which 
the individuals belong, but only in the case of substantives which denote 
an undefined number (a crowd, number, heap, part), as pars, vis, 
multitude: Desectam segetem magna vis hominum immissa in 
pars — pars (some — others), uterqve, the superlative with quisqve, 
agrum fudere in Tiberim (Liv. II. 5). Pars perexigua, duce 
amisso, Romam inermes delati sunt (Liv. II. 14). In this way 
(optimus quisqve), are sometimes used with the plural: e.g. Uterque 
eorum exercitum ex castris educunt (Caes. B. C. III. 30). Delecti 
nobilissimus quisqve (Liv. VII. 19). 

Obs. With substantives which denote an organized whole (exercitus, 
classis, &c), such a plural predicate is only found by a negligence in 
the expression ; e.g. Cetera classis, praetoria nave amissa, qvantum 
qvaeqve remis valuit fugerunt (Liv. XXXV. 26). We must not 
confound with this use of the predicate in the plural, the employment of 
the plural verb in a subordinate proposition, with reference to the indi- 
viduals which are denoted in the leading proposition by a collective 
Avord : Hie uterqve me intuebatur seseqve ad audiendum signi- 
ficabant paratos (Cic. Fin. II. 1). Idem humano generi evenit, 
qvod in terra collocati sunt (sc. homines) (Id. X. D. II. 6). 

b. If male persons are denoted figuratively by feminine or neuter 
substantives, the predicate is, notwithstanding, sometimes added in the 
natural gender : Capita conjurationis virgis caesi ac securi per- 
cussi sunt (Liv. X. 1); so also occasionally with millia: Millia 
triginta servilium capitum dicuntur capti (Liv. XXVII. 16). 



188 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 217 

c. If the names of other persons are connected with a singular subject 
by the preposition cum, the predicate, if it refers to them all, usually 
stands in the plural, just as if they were several subjects regularly con- 
nected ; Ipse dux cum aliqvot principibus capiuntur (Liv. XXI. 60) . 
If the gender be different, the rule § 214, b, is followed ; Ilia cum Lauso 
de Numitore sati (Ov. Fast. IV. 54). The singular, however, may be 
used when the subjects are not really considered as acting or suffering to- 
gether ; Tu cum Sexto scire velim qvid cogites (Cic. Att. VII. 14) . 

§ 216. If the predicate consists of sum, or one of those verbs 
mentioned in § 209, b, and a substantive, the verb is usually gov- 
erned in number and gender by this substantive, if it comes imme- 
diately after it (or after an adjective belonging to it) : — 

Amantium irae amoris integratio est (Ter. Andr. III. 3, 23). 
Hoc crimen nullum est, nisi honos ignominia putanda est (Cic. 
pro Balb. 3). 

Obs. But this is not always the case, especially where sum denotes 
to make up, constitute : e.g. Captivi militum praeda fuerant (Liv. 
XXI. 15) ; or where the number or gender of the subject is essential to 
the meaning of the proposition: e.g Semiramis puer esse credita 
est (Justin I. 2). If the subject is an infinitive, the verb always 
agrees with the substantive in the predicate ; Contentum rebus suis 
esse maximae sunt certissimaeqve divitiae (Cic. Parad. VI. 3) . 

§ 217. When an apposition is added to the subject in another 
gender or number, the predicate agrees with its proper subject : — 

Tullia, deliciae nostrae, munusculum tuum flagitat (Cic. ad Att. 
1.8). 

Only when oppidum (urbs, civitas) is added to plural names of 
towns, the predicate commonly agrees with the former : Corioli oppi- 
dum captum est (Liv. II. 33). Volsinii, oppidum Tuscorum 
opulentissimum, concrematum est fulmine (Plin. H. X. II. 53). 
Also, when a proper name is put after a general or figurative designation, 
the predicate agrees with the proper name ; Duo fulmina nostri im- 
perii subito in Hispania, Cn. et P. Scipiones, exstincti occiderunt 
(Cic. pro Balb. 15). 

Obs. 1. To a plural subject there is often added by apposition a more 
special definition with the words alter — alter, alius — alius, and qvis- 
qve, in the singular: Ambo exercitus, Vejens Tarqviniensisqve, 
suas qvisqve abeunt domos (Liv. II. 7). Decemviri perturbati 
alius in aliam partem castrorum discurrunt (Liv. III. 50). The 
general subject is often left out, and must be inferred from what goes 
before : Cum alius alii subsidium ferrent, audacius resistere 



§ 218 PARTS OF A PROPOSITION. 189 

coeperunt (Caes. B. G. II. 26), as they helped one another. Pro se 
qvisqve dextram ejus amplexi grates habebant (Curt. III. 16). 
Sometimes, however, the predicate agrees with word in apposition: 
Pictores et poetae suum qvisque opus a vulgo considerari vult 
(Cic. Off. I. 41). His oratoribus duae res maximae altera alteri 
defuit (Cic. Brut. bo). Especially when a division and contrast are 
denoted by alter — alter, or by the special names of the individual sub- 
jects ; Duo consules ejus anni, alter morbo, alter ferro periit (Liv. 
XLI. 22). 

Obs. 2. When another substantive is connected with the subject by 
qvam (tantum, qvantum) or nisi (in comparisons or exceptions), the 
predicate, if it follows the word so subjoined, often agrees with it : e.g. 
magis pedes qvam arma Numidas tutata sunt (Sail. Jug. 71). Me 
non tantum litterae qvantum longinqvitas temporis mitigavit 
(Cic. ad Fain. VI. 4). Qvis ilium consulem nisi latrones putant 
(Id. Phil. IV. 4) . (This is unusual, if a resemblance only is denoted 
by a word subjoined with ut or tanqvam.) 

§ 218. An impersonal proposition, by which the existence of an 
action or relation is asserted, without being referred, as predicate, 
to any noun for its subject, is formed in Latin as follows : — 

a. By the purely impersonal verbs (enumerated in § 166). 

Obs. 1. Those verbs which denote the weather, especially tonat, 
fulgurat, fulminat, are also predicated personally of the god (Jupiter), 
who is conceived of as the author of the tempest, as well as figuratively 
of others ; e.g. tonare, of orators. (Dies illucescit.) 

Obs. 2. With the verbs libet, licet, piget, pudet, poenitet, taedet, 
we sometimes find a neuter pronoun in the singular used as a subject, to 
point out what produces the feeling expressed by the verb : e.g. sapi- 
entis est proprium nihil, qvod poenitere possit, facere (Cic. Tusc. 
V. 28). Non, qvod qvisqve potest, ei licet (Id. Phil. XIII. 6). 
(Occasionally even in the plural : Non te haec pudent ? Ter. Ad. IV. 
7, 36. In servum omnia licent, Senec. de Clem. I. 18.) With 
these exceptions, what produces the feeling is expressed by the addition 
of a case (the genitive, see § 292), by the infinitive, the accusative with 
the infinitive, a proposition with quod, or by an indirect question ; each 
of which supplies the place of a subject, but is not the grammatical sub- 
ject. 

Obs. 3. On the way in which the person is expressed with rniseret, 
&c, see § 226; with libet, licet, § 244, a. The gerund of pudet and 
poenitet is occasionally used as if from a personal verb, signifying, I am 
ashamed, I repent : e.g. Non pudendo, sed non faciendo id, qvod 
non decet, impudentiae nomen fugere debemus (Cic. Or. I. 26). 



190 LATIN GRAMMAR. §218 

Voluptas saepius relinqvit causam poenitendi qvam recordandi 
(Id. Fin. II. 32) . But it never governs a case. 

b. By several verbs, which are used in this way in a certain sig- 
nification, but are personal in others : e.g. accidit, evenit, contin- 
git, it happens ; constat (inter omnes), it is agreed ; apparet, it is 
evident, &C. 1 (These verbs are followed by an infinitive or a sub- 
ordinate proposition, to which the assertion refers.) 

Obs. In this class we may place est with an adverb, without a sub- 
ject. See § 209, b, Obs. 2. 

c. By the passive of intransitive verbs (or of transitives, which 
are used intransitively in a certain signification), by which it is 
simply asserted that the action takes place : Hie bene dormitur. 
Ventum erat ad urbem. Invidetur potentibus (see § 244, b). 
Nunc est bibenduni. Dubitari de fide tua audio. (Concerning 
the participle and gerundive, see § 97.) 

Obs. The idiomatic frequency of impersonal expressions in Latin 
may be avoided in English in various ways, particularly by the use of the 
indefinite they and one : e.g. one sleeps well here ; I hear that they doubt 
your honor; they had come to the city ; and, the powerful are envied; 
now we must drink. Where the posture of affairs is to be expressed in 
a general way, res is sometimes used for the subject : Haud procul 
seditione res erat (Liv. VI. 16) ; res ad bellum spectabat, ad inter- 
regnum rediit (Liv. II. 56). 

d. By the verb est with a neuter adjective, followed by an infini- 
tive or a subordinate proposition : e.g. turpe est, divitias praeferri 
virtuti. Incertum est, qvo tempore mors ventura sit. 

Obs. 1. In this case, the infinitive or the subordinate sentence may be 
considered as the subject. 

Obs. 2. An impersonal proposition is also formed by the third person 
of the verbs possum, soleo, coepi, desino (coeptum est, desitum 
est), and the infinitive of an impersonal verb or an infinitive passive 
(acording to c) : Solet Dionysium, qvum aliqvid furiose fecit 
poenitere (Cic. ad Att. VIII. 5). Potest dubitari. Desitum est 
turbari (Liv. V. 17). 



1 Accedit, attinet, conducit, convenit, expedit, fallit (fugit, praeterit me), 
interest, liqvet, patet, placet, praestat, restat, vacat, and a few others. 



§ 219 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 191 



CHAPTER H. 

THE RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES IN THE PROPOSITION; THE 
CASES; THE NOMINATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. 

§ 219. The relation in which a substantive, or a word used as 
a substantive (pronoun, adjective, participle), stands to the other 
parts of a proposition, is denoted by its Case (sometimes with the 
help of a preposition). 

Substantives standing in the same relation stand also in the same 
case ; viz. : — 

a. The word which has another in apposition with it, and the word in 
apposition: Hie liber est Titi, fratris tui; Tito, fratri tuo, viro 
optimo, librum dedi. 

b. Words which are connected by conjunctions, or by enumeration, 
or division and antithesis ; e.g. Gajus laudis, Titus lucri cupidus est. 

c. The word with which a question is put, and that with which the an- 
swer is given (if in the answer there is only the name of the person or 
thing in question) : e.g. Qvis hoc fecit? Titus (sc. fecit). Cujus 
haec domus est? Titi et Gaji, fratrum meorum. Cui librum 
dedisti ? Tito, fratri tuo. 

Obs. 1. If a word in the accusative, dative, ablative, or genitive, be 
subjoined to another word, in order to complete and define its meaning, 
we say that the former is governed by the latter (as its object) . If a word 
generally takes other words in a particular case, — e.g. the dative, — in 
order to define it, we say that it is constructed with, or governs this 
case. Since the construction depends on the signification of the govern- 
ing word, and this occasionally varies, the same word may be differently 
constructed, according to its different significations. 

Obs. 2. If a word in a certain signification may be constructed with two 
different cases, — e.g. similis rei alicujus, and rei alicui, — we some- 
times, but rarely, find the two constructions in the same sentence united 
by a conjunction, or in antithesis : Stoici plectri similem lingvam 
solent dicere, chordarum dentes, nares cornibus iis, qvae ad ner- 
vos resonant in cantibus (Cic. N. D. II. 59). (Adhibenda est 
qvaedam reverentia adversus homines, et optimi cujusqve et reli- 
qvorum, Cic. Off. I. 28.) 

Obs. 3. The introduction of dico, / mean, does not affect the con- 
struction of a word in apposition : Qvam hesternus dies nobis, con- 
sularibus dico, turpis illuxit! (Cic. Phil. VIII. 7.) 



192 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 221 

Obs. 4. When words are cited simply as words (materialiter, no regard 
being had to the idea which they express), they are, notwithstanding, 
when they admit of inflection, generally put in Latin in that case which 
the governing verb calls for, especially with the prepositions ab and pro : 
Burrum semper Ennius dicit, nunqvam Pyrrhum (Cic. Or. 48). 
Navigare ducitur a navi (amor ab amando, in the gerund) . Pau- 
peries dicitur pro paupertate. Except when a direct reference is made 
to some particular form ; e.g. ab Terentius fit Terenti, from the nomi- 
native Terentius comes the vocative Terenti. 

§ 220. In regard to apposition, it is to be observed, that in Latin 
it often denotes, not the character of the person or thing in general, 
but the condition in which the person or thing is during the time 
implied in the sentence : — - 

Cicero praetor legem Maniliam suasit, consul conjurationem 
Catilinae oppressit (as prcetor, as consul, — when he was prcetor, when 
he was consul). Cato senes scribere historiam instituit (as an old 
man, in advanced life). Hie liber mihi puero valde placuit (when I 
was a boy). Hunc qvemadmodum victorem feremus, qvem ne 
victum qvidem ferre possumus (in case he should be victorious) ? 
Asia Scipioni provincia obtigit. Adjutor tibi venio. (Compare 
§ 227.) In this way, it is said : ante Ciceronem consulem (before 
Cicero as consul, before the considship of Cicero). 

Obs. 1. In such cases, numeral adverbs may be added, to denote a 
repetition of the same relation; e.g. Pompejus tertium consul judicia 
ordinavit (when he was consid for the third time, in his third consul- 
ship) . 

Obs. 2. Apposition does not denote a quality which is merely pre- 
sumed or imputed (e.g. he was taken up as a thief), which must be 
expressed by tanqvarn, qvasi, or ut; nor yet a comparison, which is 
denoted by ut, sic — ut, tanqvarn ; sic eos tractat, ut fures. Cicero 
ea, qvae nunc usu veniunt, cecinit ut vates (Corn. Att. 10), like a 
prophet. 

Obs. 3. Sometimes a word is put in apposition to a single word, which 
is the object of an active or the subject of a passive proposition, al- 
though, according to the sense, it belongs to the whole sentence, or to the 
predicate of it: e.g. Admoneor, ut aliqvid etiam de sepultura di- 
cendum existimem; rem non difficilem (Cic. Tusc. I. 43), which is 
no difficult matter. 

§ 221. The subject of a proposition and the predicate noun with 
sum, or fio, evado, maneo, or with a passive verb of incomplete 
signification, is put in the nominative. 



§ 222 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 193 

Caesar fait magnus imperator. T. Albucius perfectus Epicureus 
evaserat (Cic. Brut. 35). * 

The passives of verbs of naming, creating, accounting (see § 227), 
which, to complete their signification, require the addition of words which 
shall show how the subject is named or accounted, or what it is created, 
are followed simply by those required words in the nominative : Numa 
creatus est rex. Aristides habitus est justissimus. 

§ 222. The Accusative in itself only denotes that a word is not 
the subject ; but further than this, like the nominative, it specifies 
no particular relation. The Object of transitive verbs, or the person 
or thing to which the action of the subject is directly applied, is put 
in the accusative : Caesar vicit Pompejum ; teneo librum. The 
object may be turned into the subject, and the same verb predicated 
of it in the passive ; in which case the agent (which in the active 
proposition was the subject) is subjoined with a or ab : Pompejus 
a Caesare victus est ; liber a me tenetur. 

Obs. 1. (On §§ 221 and 222). What is predicated of the subject as 
an action, may be predicated of the object as suffering, so that this takes 
the place of the subject. The accusative is the original word, unlimited 
and unrelated. In the masculine and feminine, a peculiar form — the 
nominative — has been devised, in order to denote the word as a 
subject (or a predicate noun) ; but, in the neuter, the accusative and 
* nominative are identical. The accusative, therefore (as an absolute 
form of the noun introduced), is in the most simple way to define and 
complete the predicate expressed in the verb. In the indefinite infini- 
tive expression, where the connection between the subject and predicate 
is not of itself asserted, the subject and the predicate noun stand in the 
accusative : e.g. hominem currere, that a man runs ; esse dominum, 
to be lord. See § 394, and § 388, 6. 

Obs. 2. In the case of some verbs, which maybe limited in the active, 
by means of the preposition ab, — e.g. postulare aliqvid ab aliqvo; — 
it may sometimes be doubtful, in the passive, whether ab has the same 
signification as with the active verb, or whether it denotes the agent; e.g. 
postulatur a me may signify either, others demand of me, or, I de- 
mand, 

Obs. 3. With reference to the use of the passive, it is to be observed, 
that it is often employed in Latin, where, in English, an active transitive 
is used, with the reflective pronoun expressed or understood, because the 
action is conceived of, not so much as proceeding from the subject as some- 



1 Evado denotes a result which is produced or attained after a considerable time. 

13 



194 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 223 

thing directed towards it: e.g. commendari, to recommend one's self; 
congregari, to assemble (themselves) ; contrahi, to contract (itself) ; 
delectari, to delight (one's self) ; effundi, to pour out ; diffundi, to 
spread ; lavari, to wash ; moveri, to move ; mutari, to change ; porrigi, 
to reach. But this depends as much on the way in which the action is 
contemplated by the speaker, as on any usage affecting the several verbs. 
Sometimes, the passive, in Latin, has a peculiar signification, which a 
mere literal translation would not adequately express : as, tondeor, to 
get shaved ; cogor, to see one's self obliged, &c. 

Obs. 4. Some few verbs occasionally lay aside their transitive charac- 
ter, and are used in the active, with a reflective signification ; e.g. duro, 
inclmo, insiimo, muto, reniitto, verto. In other instances, an object 
is omitted, which may easily be supplied from the context, and the verb 
used as intransitive in a special signification ; e.g. solvere, appellere 
(navem), movere (castra), ducere in hostem (exercitum). These 
and similar examples may be found in the dictionary. 

§ 223. a. Whether a verb is transitive, depends on the question 
whether it signifies at the same time both a direct activity of some- 
thing, and a direct working or operating upon something. (Of those 
verbs, which in Latin only suggest the idea of an action in reference 
to an object, which in such cases follows in the dative, we shall speak 
when we treat of the dative case.) 

b. Many Latin verbs are in their conception fundamentally dis- 
tinct from the English verbs by which they are commonly trans- 
lated, and they have therefore a different construction ; e.g. : — 

Paro bellum (I prepare for war ; properly, I prepare ivar) ; peto 
aliqvid ab aliqvo (I ask a person for something ; properly, I seek to get 
a thing from a person) ; qvaero ex (ab or de) aliqvo, qvaero causam 
(/ ask some one, inquire after the reason) ; consolor aliqvem, but also 
consolor alicujus dolorem (I console some one in his distress) ; excuso 
tarditatem litterarum, 1" apologize for my tardiness in writing (or 
me de tarditate litterarum) ; but also excuso morbum, I plead illness 
as my excuse. 

Obs. Many verbs have different significations, so that in one they are 
transitive and govern the accusative, while in another they are differently 
constructed : as, consulo aliqvem, i" consult some one ; consulo ali- 
cui, 1 I have a regard to some one's interest ; consulo in aliqvem, / treat 
some one, e.g. crudeliter; animadverto aliqvid, I observe something ; 
animadverto in aliqvem, I punish some one. 

1 Si qvi exire volunt, consulere sibi possunt (Cic. in Cat. II. 27). 



§ 223 EELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 195 

c. Many verbs that are properly intransitive sometimes assume 
a transitive signification : e.g. several, which denote a state of mind, 
or its expression as occasioned by something ; as, — 

Doleo, / am pained; lugeo, I mourn; doleo, lugeo, aliqvid, I 
lament something; horreo, / tremble, shudder; horreo aliqvid, i" 
am alarmed at something ; miror, qveror, aliqvid, I wonder at, com- 
plain of something ; gemo, lacrimo, lamentor, fleo, ploro aliqvid, I 
weep for something; rideo aliqvid, I laugh at something; so likewise 
maneo (te triste manet supplicium, awaits thee, Virg.), 1 crepo (e.g. 
militiam, to be always talking of) ; depereo aliqvem, to be in love with 
one ; navigo mare, I navigate the sea ; salto Turnum, 2" dance Turnus 
(represent him by dancing) ; erumpo stomachum in aliqvem {pour 
out my bile). 

These peculiarities of different verbs must be learned by practice, 
and from the dictionary. The poets have used several verbs transitively, 
which are never so used in prose. 2 

Obs. 1. The passive, however, in prose is used only of a few such verbs 
as have clearly assumed a transitive meaning. We say, rideor, I am 
laughed at; but doleo, horreo, never have the passive, except in the 
gerundive, horrendus, horrible. 

Obs. 2. We must particularly notice the accusative with olere, redo- 
lere, to smell of, i.e. to have the smell of ; sapere, resipere, to have the 
taste of; e.g. olere vinum, to smell of wine. In the same way, it is 
said, sitire sangvinem; anhelare scelus (to breathe out wickedness) ; 
spirare tribunatum (to have one's mind full of the tribuneship) ; vox 
hominem sonat (sounds like that of a man. Never in the passive) . 

Obs. 3. The poets often go very far in giving intransitive verbs a 
transitive signification : e.g. in expressions like resonare lucos cantu 
(Virg.), to make the groves re-echo with song ; instabant Marti currum 
(Virg.), they labored diligently at a car; stillare rorem ex oculis 
(Hor.), manare poetica mella (Id.), to drop, let flow. They also form 
a passive from such expressions: e.g. triumphatae gentes (Virg., in 
prose triumphare de hoste) ; nox vigilata (Ov.). 3 

Obs. 4. The accusative of a substantive of the same stem, or at least 
of corresponding signification, may stand with verbs which are otherwise 
not used transitively, usually with the addition of an adjective or pro- 
noun : e.g. vitam tutiorem vivere, justam servitutem servire, insan- 
ire similem errorem (Hor.) . Ego patres vestros vivere arbitror, 

1 Man ere, however, is also constructed with the dative, to remain to a person. So like- 
wise, res aliqvem latet, and less frequently, alicui. 
2 Mediasqve fraudes 
Palluit audax (Hor. Od. in. 27. 27). 
3 Regnata Laconi rura Phalanto (Hor. Od. n. 612). 



196 LATIN GRAMMAR. • § 224 

et earn qvidem vitam qvae est sola vita nominanda (Cic. Cat. M. 
21). Hence, in the passive, hac pugna pugnata (Corn. Hann. 5), when 
this battle was fought. (Nunc tertia vivitur aetas, Ov. Met. XII. 
188.) 

§ 224. It is particularly to be observed, that several verbs, which 
denote a motion through space, when compounded with prepositions, 
acquire a transitive signification, and are constructed with the accu- 
sative. Such verbs are the following : — 

a. Those compounded with the prepositions, circum, per, praeter, 
trans, super, subter ; as, circumeo, circumvenio, circumvehor, 
percurro, pervagor, praetergredior, praetervehor, praetervolo, 
transeo, transilio, transno, supergredior, subterfugio, subterlabor ; 
e.g. locum periculosum praetervehor. 

Obs. 1. So also praecedo, praegredior, praefluo {flow by) , praeve- 
nio (praecurro, with the ace. and dat.) ; obeo (regionem, negotia), 
with obambulo, obeqvito, oberro, with the signification, to walk, ride, 
rove through, or over (but with the dative, signifying, before or against, 
obequitare portae) ; usually subeo (tectum, montem, nomen exulis ; 
subire ad muros, to draw near beneath the walls, poet, subire portae ; 
subit animo mihi, it occurs to me). In the case of the others com- 
pounded with ob and sub, the reference to a thing is expressed by the 
dative. See § 245. 

Obs. 2. The accusative stands also with verbs compounded with 
circum, which denote a voice or sound ; circumfremo, circumlatro, 
circumsono, circumstrepo. 

Obs. 3. Supervenio, to come upon, after, to, is constructed with the 
dative. 

b. Yarious verbs, which, from being compounded with ad, con, or in, 
acquire a derived and altered meaning ; as, adeo, to visit, apply to some 
one (colonias, deos, libros, Sibyllinos), to enter upon (hereditatem) ; 
aggredior, adorior, to attack; convenio, to meet a person (in order 
to speak with him) ; coeo, to enter upon (societatem) ; ineo, to enter, 
form, enter on, tread (societatem, consilia, rationem, magistratum, 
fines). Both these and the verbs adduced under a are used also in 
the passive as complete transitives : Flumen transitur ; hostis cir- 
cumventus ; societas inita est. 

Obs. 1. Adeo ad aliqvem, I go to some one; accedo ad aliqvem. 
(Compare § 245, a, with Obs. 2.) 

Obs. 2. Insidere locum, to take possession of a place, to settle there 
(insidere locum, to keep possession of it) ; insidere in animo, to im- 
press itself on the mind; insistere viam, iter, pursue, enter upon; 
insistere loco (dat.) and in loco, to stand in a place. Ingredior and 



§226 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 197 

invado are constructed both with the simple accusative and with the 
preposition repeated (ingredi urbem and in urbeni; ingredi iter, 
magistratum, to enter upon ; invadere in hostem, Cic. ; hostis in- 
vaditur, Sail.) ; usually irrumpo in urbeni, insilio in eqvum, but 
also irrumpo urbem, insilio eqvum (not in the passive). Incessit 
(from incedo; see § 138) timor patres and cura patribus (dat.). 
Other verbs with in (e.g. incido, incurro, involo, innato) are used 
only rarely and poetically with the accusative instead of with in or the 
dative. 

c. Excedo, egredior, to overstep ; e.g. fines. 

Obs. In the signification to go out, these verbs are mostly constructed 
with ex, as also commonly elabor ; evado, to slip from, escapte. Con- 
cerning excedo, egredior, with the simple ablative, see § 262. (The 
passive of excedo and evado is not used. Exeo, with the accus., — 
e.g. modum, — is poetical.) 

d. Antevenio, to be beforehand with; antegredior, to go before. 
The verbs antecedo, anteeo, antecello, praesto, to excel, are con- 
structed both with the dative and the accusative, but most frequently 
with the former (not in the passive) . 

Obs. Excello is used with the dative (excellere ceteris), or without 
a case (inter omnes) . 

§ 225. Those verbs which denote presence in a place (jaceo, 
sedeo, sto) govern the accusative when they are compounded with 
circum ; Multa me pericula circumstant. (Concerning the com- 
pounds with ad, see § 245, Obs. 2.) 

Obs. We must separately notice obsideo (with its signification 
entirely changed ; to besiege) . Of other compound verbs, which convey 
no idea of space, and yet become transitive by composition, we may 
notice allatro, alloqvor, impugno, oppugno, and expugno. (Attendo 
aliqvid ; e.g. versum, and aliqvem, attendo animum ad aliqvid, 
praeeo verba, carmen.) 

§ 226. With the impersonal verbs piget, pudet, poenitet, taedet 
(pertaesum est), miseret, the name of the person whose mind is 
affected stands as an object in the accusative (but that which ex- 
cites the emotion, in the genitive) : e.g. pudet regem facti ; miseret 
nos hominis; solet vos beneficiorum poenitere. In the same 
way decet, it beseems, becomes, and dedecet, govern the accusative ; 
e.g. Oratorem irasci minime decet. 

Obs. Transitive verbs which are used impersonally retain the accusa- 
tive ; e.g. non me fallit (fugit, praeterit), it does not escape my 
attention. 



198 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 227 

§ 227. Some verbs, which do not in themselves denote a com- 
plete action, take, besides the object itself, the accusative of a sub- 
stantive or adjective, which constitutes a predicate of the object, 
and serves to complete the notion of the verb. (Strictly speaking, 
this accusative forms an apposition to the object.) In the passive, 
these verbs are used as incomplete with the predicate noun in the 
nominative, according to § 209. Such verbs are the following : — 

a. Those verbs which denote to make (to choose, nominate), to have 
or appoint (to give, take, assume, &c), as facio, efficio, reddo, creo, 
eligo, declaro, designo, renuntio, dico, &c, do, sumo, capio, in- 
stituo, &c. That into which a thing is made, &c, is subjoined to these 
verbs in the accusative: Avaritia homines caecos reddit. 1 Meso- 
potamiam fertilem efficit Euphrates (Cic. N. D. II. 52). Scipio 
P. Rupilium potuit consulem efficere (Id. Lael. 20). Populus 
Romanus Numam regem creavit (jussit, Liv.). Ciceronem una 
voce universus populus Romanus consulem declaravit (Cic. de 
Leg. Agr. II. 2). Appius Claudius libertinorum filios senatores 
legit. Cato Valerium Flaccum in consulatu collegam habuit. 
Tiberius Druso Sejanum dedit adjutorem. Augustus Tiberium 
filium et consortem potestatis ascivit. 

b. Those verbs which signify to show one^s self as something, to find a 
thing of a certain character: e.g. Praesta te virum (Cic). Rex se 
clementem praebebit. Cognosces me tuae dignitatis fautorem 
(in me you will find one who will promote your dignity) . 

c. Those verbs which signify to name and to look upon or esteem 
(to hold, reckon, declare), (appello, voco, nomino, dico, saluto, &c, 
inscribo, to entitle; habeo, duco, existimo, numero, judico, and 
sometimes puto) : Summum consilium reipublicae Romani appel- 
larunt senatum. Cicero librum aliqvem Laelium inscripsit. 
Senatus Antonium hostem judicavit. Te judicem aeqvum puto 
(Cic). Quid intelligit Epicurus honestum? What does Epicurus 
conceive of as virtue ? What does he understand by virtue ? (Cic. de Fin. 
II. 15). 

Obs. 1. Habeo and existimo are used in this signification mostly in 
the passive : Aris tides habitus est justissimus ; nolo existimari 
impudens. We also find habere aliqvem pro hoste (to treat him as 
an enemy) ; pro nihilo putare ; in hostium numero habere ; parentis 
loco (in loco) habere (ducere) aliqvem. 



1 Reddo is especially used with adjectives ; but not in the passive, where fieri alone is 
employed. 



§ 228 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 199 

Obs. 2. Puto, existimo, judico, duco, to think, believe, hold (that a 
thing is so and so), are followed by an infinitive proposition. Credor, 
used in the way here mentioned (to be looked upon as something), is 
poetical ; credor sangvinis auctor (Ovid) . 

Obs. 3. If several objects, differing in gender or number, are com- 
bined with one of these verbs, the predicate noun, if it be an adjective or 
participle, is regulated according to the rules given in §§ 213 and 214. 

Obs. 4. A predicate noun may also be subjoined to the passive 
participle of these verbs : e.g. Marius hostis judicatus, Marius icho 
was declared an enemy ; and (although rarely) in other cases besides the 
nominative and accusative, e.g. in the ablative : Filio suo magistro 
eqvitum creato (Liv. IV. 46), when he had named his son mag. eqv. 
Consulibus certioribus factis (Liv. XLY. 21, from certiorem facio, 
to apprise); and in the dative: Remisit tamen Octavianus Antonio 
hosti judicato amicos omnes (Svet. Oct. 17). 

§ 228. Some few words, all of which have for their object a 
person (or something considered as a person), may take another 
accusative, to denote a more remote object of the action ; viz. : — 

a. Doceo, to teach one a thing : edoceo, to inform, acquaint with; 
dedoceo, to cause one to unlearn a thing (make one break off) ; celo, to 
keep one in ignorance ofsi thing (conceal) : e.g. do cere aliqvem litteras. 
Non celavi te sermonem hominum (Cic). But we find also the 
construction, docere aliqvem de aliqva re, signifying to acquaint with 
something ; and celare aliqvem de aliqva re. 

Obs. In the passive, the accusative may be retained with doceo 
(doceri motus Ionicos, Hor. ; L. Marcius sub Cn. Scipione omnes 
militiae artes edoctus fuerat, Liv.), especially with the participle 
(doctus iter melius, Hor. ; edoctus iter nostrum, Tac.) ; but the 
more usual expression is discere aliqvid (doceri de aliqva re, to be 
informed) . (Also, doctus Graecis litteris, skilled in Greek ; doceo 
aliqvem Graece loqvi ; Graece loqvi docendus.) The accusative 
of a neuter pronoun may stand with celor (e.g. Hoc nos celatos non 
oportuit, Ter. Hec. IV. 4, 23) ; otherwise, it is expressed celor de re 
aliqva. 1 

b. Posco (reposco); flagito, to demand something from one; oro, 
to pray for something; rogo, to ask; interrogo (percontor), to ask 
one about a thing : Verres parentes pretium pro sepultura liberum 



1 Docere aliqvem Latine, Graece (scire, nescire, oblivisci Latine, Grae- 
ce) ; docere aliqvem fldibus {to teach one to flay on a stringed instrument). With a 
simple accusative of the thing in the signification to lecture on, trado (philosophiam 
trado) is used in preference to doceo. 



200 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 229 

poscebat (Cic. Verr. I. 3). Caesar frumentum Aeduos flagitabat 
(Caes. B. G. I. 16). Achaei regem auxilia orabant (Liv. XXVIII. 
5) . Tribunus me primum sententiam rogavit (Cic. ad Q. Fr. II. 1) . 
Socrates pusionem geometrica qvaedam interrogat (Cic. Tusc. I. 
24). Hence, in the passive, interrogatus sententiam (and in the 
poets, poscor aliqvid, something is desired of me). 

Obs. 1. We may also say posco, flagito aliqvid ab aliqvo (as we 
always find peto, postulo aliqvid ab aliqvo) . (Precor deos, ut.) 
Rogo and oro are also put merely with the name of the thing wished 
for; rogare auxilium, pacem orare. These verbs have especially 
two accusatives, when the object desired is expressed by the neuter of a 
pronoun (e.g. hoc te oro ; qvod me rogas), or of a numeral adjective 
(unum, multa te rogo, see § 224). The same holds of rogo ; inter- 
rogo, to ask about ; they have a substantive as the accusative of the 
thing only when they mean to call upon a person to say something: 
e.g. sententiam, testimonium ; with this exception, interrogo de 
re aliqva. Percontor is rarely used in this way. (Si qvis meum te 
percontabitur aevum, Hor. Ep. I. 20, 26), commonly percontor 
aliqvem, to examine a person, or percontor aliqvid ex aliqvo. 

Obs. 2. Here we may also notice the expression, velle aliqvem 
aliqvid, to want a tiling from a person ; e.g. qvid me vis? 

§ 229. 1. The accus. neuter of a pronoun (id, hoc, illud, idem, 
qvod, qvid, aliud, alteram, aliqvid, qvidpiam, qvidqvam, qvid- 
qvid, nihil, utrumqve) or of a numeral adjective (unum, multa, 
pauca), is sometimes subjoined to intransitive verbs, to denote, not 
the proper object, but the compass and extent of the action (in gen- 
eral). This is done — 

a. In particular with several verbs which denote a state of mind and 
its expression ; e.g. laetor, glorior, irascor, succenseo, assentior, 
dubito, studeo. A more accurate definition is often annexed to the 
pronoun by an additional clause. (The pronoun belongs properly to 
the substantive notion contained in the verb itself; e.g. hoc glorior = 
haec est gloriatio mea. If the object of the verb is to be expressed by 
a substantive, another case, or a preposition, must be employed : e.g. 
victoria glorior, de plerisqve rebus tibi assentior.) Vellem idem 
posse gloriari, qvod Cyrus (Cic. Cat. M. 10), strictly, to boast the 
same thing ; i.e. of the same thing. Utrumqve laetor, et sine dolore 
corporis te fuisse et animo valuisse (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 1). Al- 
terum fortasse dubitabunt, sitne tanta vis in virtute, alterum non 
dubitabunt, qvin Stoici convenientia sibi dicant (Cic. Finn. V. 
28). Illud vereor, ne tibi Dejotarum succensere aliqvid suspicere 



§ 230 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 201 

(Cic. pro Dej. 13), that he entertains some grudge. Omnes mulieres 
eadem student (Ter. Hec. II. 1, 2), have the same inclinations. 

b. Likewise, with other verbs, which may require, to complete their 
notion, a similar definition of measure and extent : Qvid prodest 
mentiri? Hoc tamen profeci. Ea, qvae locuti sumus (different 
from de qvibus locuti sumus). Si remittent qvidpiam dolores 
(Ter. Hec. III. 2, 14) . Si qvid adolescens offenderit, sibi totum, 
tibi nihil offenderit (Cic. ad Fam. II. 18), if he commits a fault, he 
will have to bear all the consequences, and not you. Callistratus in 
oratione sua multa invectus est in Thebanos (Corn. Epam. 9), 
heaped many reproaches on the Thebans. 

Obs. 1. Hence in the passive, si qvid offensum est, instead of the 
purely impersonal, si offensum est. Hoc pugnatur (Cic. Rose. 
Am. 3), this is the object of the contest. 

Obs. 2. With the phrase auctor sum (I advise, assure), we some- 
times find a neuter pronoun in the singular, as with a transitive verb ; e.g. 
Consilium petis, qvid tibi sim auctor (Cic. ad Fam. VI. 8. Else- 
where, cujus rei). 

2. This method of limiting an action occurs sometimes, also, with transi- 
tive verbs which have an accusative of the proper object : Qvidqvid 
ab urbe longius arma profertis, magis magisqve in imbelles 
gentes proditis (Liv. VII. 32). Nos aliqvid Rutulos juvimus 
(Virg. iEn. X. 84) . This is found especially with verbs of warning or 
exhorting: moneo, admoneo, commoneo, hortor; also with cogo. 
Discipulos id num moneo, ut praeceptor es non minus qvam ipsa, 
studia ament (Quint. II. 9, 1). Metellus pauca milites hortatus, 
est (Sail. Jug. 49) . Qvid non mortalia pectora cogis, auri sacra 
fames ? (Virg. iEn. III. 56). This accusative is found with the passive 
also; Non audimus ea, qvae ab natura monemur (Cic. Lsel. 24). 
If a neuter pronoun is not used, we find, e.g., admoneo aliqvem rei, 
(§ 291), or de re. But in a very few cases we find the accusative of a sub- 
stantive, instead of de ; Earn rem nos locus admonuit (Sail. Jug. 79). 

§ 230. The accusative is employed with the prepositions given m 
§ 172, II. With regard to those prepositions which, according to 
the different relations they express, may be employed with the accu- 
sative or the ablative, the following observations may be useful. 

In. a. In has the accusative when it denotes a motion to or into, or a 
direction towards sl thing, and in the kindred although not literal signi- 
fications derived from these, and denoting a state of mind, action towards, 
and in reference to something, activity in a certain direction, and with a 
certain object. Proficisci in Graeciam, in carcerem conjicere, in civi- 
tatem recipere ; advenire in provinciam, convenire, congregari, 
concurrere, exercitum contrahere in locum aliqvem (and hence 



202 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 230 

congregari aliqvo, eo, not alicubi, ibi) ; tres pedes habere in longi- 
tudinem, in latitudinem ; dicere in aliqvem, arnor in patriam, me- 
rita in rempublicam ; accipere in bonam partem (in good part) ; in 
speciem (for appearance's sake) ; mutari in saxum ; consistere in 
orbem (into a circle, so as to make a circle) ; in majus celebrare (so as 
to exaggerate) ; grata lex in vulgus (in its effect on the lower classes) ; 
multa dixi in earn sententiam (to this purport) ; in eas leges (on those 
conditions, so that the conditions were such) ; in tres annos (for three 
years) ; in omne tempus, in perpetuum ; in dies singulos crescere, 
for every day, daily (in dies, day by day ; in horas, hourly) ; dividere 
(distribuere, &c), in tres partes, into three parts. 1 

b. In has the ablative when it denotes the being or happening in a 
thing or at a place, and in the significations derived from these (on, ivith 
a thing, among, during an action, &c.) ; in urbe esse, in ripa sedere 
(considere) ; in flumine navigare, in campo currere ; vas in mensa 
ponere; in Socrate (in Socrates, in the person of Socrates) ; in opere 
(in the workman's hands) . 

Obs. 1. Sometimes in stands with the ablative of a person, in order to 
distinguish it as the object on which something is practised, in reference 
to which something takes place : Hoc facere in eo homine consve- 
runt, cujus orationem approbant (Cses. B. G. VII. 21). Achilles 
non talis in hoste fuit Priamo (Virg. iEn. II. 540), did not conduct 
himself thus toward (in reference to) him . Hoc dici in servo potest 
(of a slave) . 2 (Poetically, ardere in aliqva, to be enamoured of a 
person.) 

Obs. 2. In some few expressions, in, joined to esse and habere, is 
occasionally (but only by way of exception) followed by an accusative 
sing, instead of an ablative : e.g. habere in potestatem ; in amicitiam 
dicionemqve populi Romani esse. 3 

Obs. 3. Although pono, loco, colloco, statuo, constituo, have in 
with the ablative (collocare aliqvid in mensa), yet we say imponere in 
currum, in naves (in a carriage, to lade the ships), and sometimes 
exponere milites in terram (to land) : but otherwise, imposuistis in 
cervicibus nostris dominum; imponere praesidium arci, dative, 
see § 243). (Reponere pecuniam in thesauris, and in thesauros, to 
put it in the treasury.) 



1 In spem futurae multitudinis urbem munire (Liv. I. 8), with reference to the 
hope, so as to connect ivith it the hope. 

2 The relation expressed by the prepositioD in these sentences is better given by the phrase 
in the case of; in eo homine, in the case of that man; in Priamo, in the case of Priam ; 
in servo, in the case of a slave. (T.) 

3 This originated in an inaccuracy of the pronunciation, where the distinction between the 
accusative and ablative rested on the single letter m ; on the other hand, we never find such 
phrases as in imperium esse, or in vincla habere. 



§ 230 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 203 

Obs. 4. With certain verbs, the usage varies, in some cases, between 
in with the accusative, and in with the ablative, with some slight differ- 
ence of meaning. Thus, we find includere aliqvem in carcerem, 
orationem in epistolam (to bring into), and includere aliqvem in 
carcere (to shut up) ; also simply includere carcere (see § 263) and 
includere aliqvid orationi suae (see, under the dative, § 243) ; so 
also condere aliqvem in carcerem (in vincula), to throw into prison, 
but condere aliqvid in visceribus (Cic), incidere aliqvid in aes 
(to cut a thing in brass) , in tabula (on a tablet) , and incidere nomen 
saxis (dat., see § 243) ; imprimere, insculpere aliqvid in animis, in 
cera and cerae. TV r e find abdere se in aliqvem locum (in intimam 
Macedoniam, Cic.) , to go to a place for the purpose of concealment 
(hence also abdere se domum, Arpinum, according to § 232, eo, ali- 
qvo), but abdere milites in insidiis, abditus in tabernaculo. 

Sub. a. Sub takes the accusative when it denotes motion and direc- 
tion ; e.g. sub scalas se conjicere, venire sub oculos, cadere sub 
sensum ; also of time, when it denotes towards, immediately after, at 
about : sub noctem, sub adventum Romanorum, sub dies festos 
(immediately after the holidays) ; sub idem tempus. 1 

b. Sub has the ablative when it denotes the being under a thing ; sub 
mensa, esse sub oculis. (Rarely when applied to time ; sub ipsa pro- 
fectione, during the very time of.) 

Super has the ablative, in prose, only when it signifies concerning : 
Hac super re scribam ad te postea (Cic. ad Att. XVI. 6) ; with this 
exception, it takes the accusative. (In the poets, we also find super foco, 
on the hearth, &c.) 

Subter (under, on the under side of) usually has the accusative, very 
rarely the ablative, and that only in the poets ; e.g. subter prae- 
cordia. 

Obs. 1. The compound adverbs, pridie and postridie, are also, to a 
certain extent, used as prepositions with the accusative, but in good 
writers only with the days of the month, and the names of festivals 
(pridie Idus, postridie Nonas, postridie ludos Apollinares) ; with 
the genitive usually only in the expression, pridie, postridie ejus diei. 
For a peculiar use of the preposition ante (in ante, ex ante), see the 
section on the Calendar, in the Appendix. 

Obs. 2. Not only is the adverb propius, proxime (according to § 172, 
Obs. 4), used like the preposition prope with the accusative (more rarely 
with the dative), but even the adjective is sometimes constructed in this 
way: e.g. propior montem (Sail.), proximus mare (Cses.) ; but the 
dative is, in such cases, the most usual. (Proximus ab aliqvo, the next 
after a person, in a series, like prope ab, not far from ; propius a terra 

1 [Extremae sub casum hiemis, jam vere sereno (Yirg. Georg. I. 349).] 



204 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 232 

moveri; proxime alter ab altero habitant. In the signification 
near, we find both accedo prope aliqvem and prope accedo ad ali- 
qvem.) 

§ 231. With the following transitive verbs compounded with 
trans, — traduco, trajicio, transports, — we have not only the name 
of the object, but also that of the place over which a thing is led 
or transported, in the accusative (which belongs to the preposition) : 

Hannibal copias Iberum traduxit. Caesar milites navibus 
flamen transportat. (Also traducere, trajicere, homines trans 
Rhenum.) 1 

Obs. Of the same character is the expression adigo aliqvem arbi- 
trum, to bring a person before (ad) the judge; and adigo aliqvem jus- 
jurandum (also ad jusjurandum, and adigo aliqvem jurejurando), 
to put one to his oath. 

§ 232. The proper names of towns and smaller islands (each of 
which may be considered as a town) stand in the accusative with- 
out a preposition, when they are specified as the place where the 
motion is to end : — 

Romam ire, Athenas proficisci, Delum navigare (appellere clas- 
sem Puteolos, navis appellitur Syracusas, runs into the harbor of 
Syracuse) . Haec via Capuam ducit. Usqve Ennam profecti sunt 
(Cic. Verr. IV. 49), as far as to. But ad is used when only the vicin- 
ity of the town is meant ; Adolescentulus miles ad Capuam profectus 
sum (Cic. Cat. M. 4), to an encampment before Capua. 

Obs. 1. Where no motion is indicated, but only an extent of space 
expressed, the preposition is added ; omnis ora Salonis ad Oricum 
(Oes. B. C. III. 8). 

Obs. 2. If urbs or oppidum be prefixed, the preposition is inserted : 
Consul pervenit in oppidum Cirtam (Sail. Jug. 102), into Cirta; ad 
oppidum Cirtam would mean, arrived at Cirta. So also usually, when 
urbs or oppidum with an adjective is put after the proper name ; 
Demaratus Corinthus contulit se Tarqvinios in urbem Etruriae 
florentissimam (Cic. R. P. II. 19). 

Obs. o. In is used with the names of countries, and larger islands. 
Sometimes, however, we find the names of larger islands constructed 
like the names of towns; in Cyprum venit, and Cyprum missus 
est. 

Obs. 4. In the poets, the names of countries also are put as the place 
where a motion is to end without a preposition ; e.g. Italiam venit 

1 Trajicere exercitum Pado, on the Po ; trajicere, transmittere flumen. to 
cross the river. Trajicere in Africam, without an object, to cross over to Africa. 



§ 234 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 205 

(Virg.). (Occasionally, in prose, the Greek names of countries in us, 
as Aegyptus, Epirus, Bosporus ; e.g. Aegyptum proficisci (Corn. 
Dat. 4). The poets also use national names, as well as common names 
in general, when considered as the place where a motion is to end, in the 
accusative without a preposition; e.g. Ibimus Afros (Virg. Eel. 
I. 64). Tua mea imago haec limina tendere adegit (Id. iEn. VI. 
696). Verba refers aures non pervenientia nostras (Ovid, Met. 
HI. 462). * 

§ 233. The accusatives domum, home; and rus, to the country, — 
are constructed like the names of towns : e.g. domum reverti, rus 
ire ; also, domos, of several different homes ; e.g. ministerium resti- 
tuendorum domos obsidum (Liv. XXII. 22), the business of bring- 
ing each of the hostages to his home. To domum may be added a 
possessive pronoun or a genitive, in order to show whose house is 
meant : e.g. domum meam, domum Pompeji venisti (domum alie- 
nam, domum regiam = regis) ; domos suas discesserunt (Corn. 
Them. 4) ; but we also find in domum suam, in domum Pompeji 
(and domum ad Pompejum). 

Obs. 1. With other pronouns and adjectives in must be inserted; in 
domum amplam et magnificam venire. 

Obs. 2. The accusative of the place is sometimes joined to a verbal 
substantive: domum reditio (Caes.) ; reditus inde Romam (Cic.). 2 

§ 234. a. When the measure of extent is given, or a movement 
is measured, the word which expresses the measure is put in the 
accusative with verbs, and such adjectives or adverbs as express 
extension (longus, latus, altus, crassus) ; e.g. : — 

Hasta sex pedes longa; fossa decern pedes alta; terram duos 
pedes alte infodere. Fines Helvetiorum patebant in longitudi- 
nem ducenta qvadraginta millia passuum. Caesar tridui iter pro- 
cessit A recta conscientia transversum ungvem {a finger's breadth) 
non oportet discedere (Cic. ad Att. XIII. 20) . 

b. When a distance is specified (abesse, distare), the measure 
may stand either in the accusative or the ablative ; e.g. : — 

Abesse tridui iter (Cic). Teanum abest a Larino xviii 
millia passuum (Cic. pro Cluent. 9). Aesculapii templum v mil- 
libus passuum ab Epidauro distat (Liv. XLV. 28) . 

1 [Tumulum antiqvae Cereris, sedemqve sacratam venimus (Virg. Mn. II. 
742).] 

3 [Iter Italiam (Virg. Mn, HI. 507). Hac iter elysium (Id. Mn. VI. 542).] 



206 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 235 

In like manner both cases are used when it is said at what dis- 
tance a thing takes place ; e.g. : — 

Ariovistus millibus passuum sex a Caesaris castris consedit 
(Cses. B. G. I. 48). Caesar millia passuum tria ab Helvetiorum 
castris castra ponit (Id. ibid. I. 22). 

Obs. So also magnum spatium abesse (Cses. B. G. II. 17), and 
aeqvo spatio a castris utrisqve abesse (Id. ibid. I. 43). But if 
spatium or intervallum be used in defining the distance at which a 
thing happens, these words always stand in the ablative : e.g. Rex 
Juba sex millium passuum intervallo consedit (Cses. B. C. II. 38). 
Hannibal xv ferme millium spatio castra ab Tarento posuit 
(Liv. XXV. 9). If the place from which the distance is reckoned 
is not specified, the preposition ab only often stands before the 
measure ; A millibus passuum duobus castra posuerunt (Cses. 
B. G. II. 7). 1 

c. In the same way with the adjective natus (so and so) old; 
the number of the years (the measure of the age) is put in the 
accusative ; viginti annos natus. 

Obs. Concerning the way of designating the measure by comparison 
with natus (major natus, m,ore than years old), and other adjec- 
tives of extension (e.g. longior, more than ells, and the like, long, 

&c), see § 306. 

§ 235. In specifying duration and extent of time (how long?), the 
words which define the time are put in the accusative : — 

Pericles qvadraginta annos praefuit Athenis. Veji urbs decern 
aestates hiemesqve continuas circumsessa est (Liv. Y. 22) . An- 
num jam audis Cratippum (Cic. Off. I. 1). Dies noctesqve fata 
nos circumstant (Id. Phil. X. 10) . 2 Ex eo dies continuos qvinqve 
Caesar copias pro castris produxit (Cses. B. G. I. 48), did it once 
a day for Jive successive days. Occasionally per is prefixed (as in English 
through) ; Ludi decern per dies facti sunt (Cic. in Cat. III. 8), 
through ten whole days. 

Obs. 1. The way in which time is expressed with ordinals should be 
noticed ; Mithridates annum jam tertium et vigesimum regnat (of 
the current year) . 

Obs. 2. The accusative also stands with abhinc, ago ; e.g. Qvaestor 
fuisti abhinc annos qvattuordecim. 



1 [Naves ex eo loco ab minibus passuum octo vento tenebantur (Cses. B. 
G. IV. 22).] 

2 Not merely by day and by night, but all through the day and night. 



§ 237 EELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 207 

Obs. 3. The ablative, to express duration of time, is rare in the best 
writers : Tota aestate Nilus Aegyptum obrutam oppletamqve tenet 
(Cie. X. D. II. 52). Pugnatum est continenter horis qvinqve 
(Cags. B. C. I. 47). This construction occurs more frequently in later 
writers ; e.g. Octoginta annis vixit (Senec. Ep. 93) . On the other hand, 
to express the time which is applied to any purpose, and in which it is 
accomplished, the ablative is always employed ; e.g. Tribus diebus opus 
perfici potest. See § 276. 

§ 236. In exclamations of astonishment or suffering at the condi- 
tion or character of a person or thing, the person or thing stands in 
the accusative with or without an interjection : — 

Heu me miserum ! or Me miserum ! O fallacem hominum spem 
fragilemqve fortunam (Cic. de Or. HI. 2) . Testes egregios ! (iron- 
ical.) 

Obs. 1. In the exclamation with the interjection pro, the vocative is 
employed : Pro, Di immortales ! Pro, sancte Juppiter ! except in the 
phrase, Pro deum (hominum, deum atqve hominum) fidem ! The 
vocative of direct address may also be used with o : O magna vis veri- 
tatis ! O fortunate adolescens, qvi tuae virtutis Homerum praeco- 
nem inveneris ! (Cic. pro Arch. 10). 

Obs. 2. With the interjections hei and vae, which express lamenta- 
tion, the name of the person or thing lamented is put in the dative : 
Hei mihi ! Vae tergo meo ! 

Obs. 3. With en and ecce (which call the attention to something as 
present), we often find the nominative (in Cieero, always) : Ecce tuae 
litterae (behold, there came your letter) . En memoria mortui sodalis. 
The accusative occurs less frequently. 

§ 237. The poets use the accusative more freely in certain com- 
binations, and in this some prose-writers imitate them in a few 
instances. 

a. The passive of the verbs cingo, to gird ; accingo, induo, to clothe ; 
exuo, to undress ; induco, to draw over, — is employed with a new active 
signification, — to clothe one's self with, to put on, exuor, to put off, and 
constructed with the accusative : Coroebus Androgei galeam clipei- 
qve insigne decorum induitur (Virg. iEn. II. 392). Priamus inu- 
tile ferrum cingitur (Id. ibid. II. 511). (Figuratively: magicas 
accingi artes (Id. ib. IV. 493), to put on magic as armor, to equip one's 
self with it. Inducta cornibus aurum victima (Ov. Met. VII. 161). 
Virgines longam indutae vestem (Liv. XXVII. 37). (Otherwise 
in prose : induo aliqvem veste ; also, induo vestem, to put on a 
dress.) 



208 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 237 

Obs. In the same way, it is said, Cyclopa moveri, to dance a Cy- 
clops (represent him in dancing) ; and, in prose : censeri magnum agri 
modum, to return a large quantity of land for assessment. 

b. The participle perfect of the passive (as in Greek the parti- 
ciple perfect of the passive and middle) is used of a person who has 
done something to himself as an active verb, with an accusative : — 

Dido Sidoniam pic to chlamydem circumdata limbo (Yirg. iEn. 
IY. 137), who had on, qvae sibi circumdederat. Pueri laevo sus- 
pensi loculos tabulamqve lacerto (Hor. Sat. I. 6, Ik), who had — sus- 
pended. Juno nondum antiqvum saturata dolorem (Virg. iEn. Y. 
608), who had not yet satisfied her pique. 1 

Obs. But it is sometimes employed also to designate a person to 
whom something is done (by others) ; e.g. per pedes trajectus 
lora tumentes (Yirg. iEn. II. 273), who has straps drawn through his 
feet. 

c. The accusative is put with passive and intransitive verbs, and 
with adjectives, to denote that part of the subject with reference to 
which the verb or adjective is predicated of it : — 

Nigrantes terga juvenci (Yirg. iEn. Y. 97) ; lacer ora; os humer- 
osqve deo similis. Eqvus micat auribus et tremit artus (Yirg. G. 
III. 84). An accusative, denoting something incorporeal, is found 
so used in a few instances : Qvi genus (estis) ? (Yirg. iEn. YIII. 
114). In this way, passive verbs acquire a reflective signification 
(as under 6) ; Capita Fhrygio velamur amictu (Yirg. iEn. III. 
545), we cover our heads. 

Obs. 1. In prose, the active is used for the reflective expression 
(velamus capita) ; otherwise, the ablative is always employed in this 
construction (ore humerisqve deo similis). See § 253. Only in 
speaking of wounds, we find the accusative with ictus, saucius, trans- 
verberatus, &c. ; Adversum femur tragula ictus (Liv. XXI. 7). 

Obs. 2. This use of the accusative, as well as that explained under 
a and 6, is common in Greek, and has originated in Latin (with a few 
exceptions, as with censeor) from an imitation of that language. 

Obs. 3. In a similar way (adverbially) are used, in prose, the expres- 
sions, magnam (maximam) partem, for the most part (e.g. Svevi 
maximam partem lacte atqve pecore vivunt, Caes. B. G. IY. I), 2 
and vicem alicujus (meam, vestram, 8ic.),for any one, on account of 
(properly, instead of), particularly with intransitive verbs and adjectives, 



1 [Wodo sinus collecta fluentes (Virg. .aEn. I. 320).] 

2 Ex aliqva, magna, majore parte, partially, for the most part. 



§ 240 THE DATIVE. 209 

which denote an emotion of the mind : tuam vicem saepe doleo, 
indignor ; nostram vicem irascuntur ; sollicitus, anxius reipub- 
licae vicem; suam vicem (for his part) officio functus. So like- 
wise cetera, in other respects ; vir cetera egregius (Liv.). 

§ 238. In a few phrases, the accusative stands for the more special 
case, genitive or ablative ; sc. id temporis, for eo tempore (e.g. 
id temporis eos venturos esse praedixeram, Cic. in Cat. I. 4) ; 
id (illud) aetatis, for ejus aetatis (e.g. homo id aetatis; qvum 
esset illud aetatis), and id (hoc, omne) genus, for ejus (hujus 
omnis) generis (e.g. id genus alia, other things of that kind). 

Obs. Concerning the genitive in id temporis, compare § 285, b. 
On virile, muliebre secus, see § 55, 5. 

§ 239. We must particularly notice the elliptical expression, Qvo 
mihi (tibi), with an accusative, signifying, What am I {are you) to 

do icith ? of what use is to me (to you) ? e.g. Qvo mihi for- 

tunam, si non conceditur uti? (Hor. Ep. I. o, 12) ; and similarly: 

Unde mihi (tibi), Where can I get ? e.g. unde mihi lapidem? 

(Id. Sat. II. 7, 116). (Qvo tibi, Pasiphae, pretiosas sumere ves- 
tes? Ov. A. A. I. 303.) 



CHAPTEK in. 



THE DATIVE. 



§ 240. The remaining cases, except the vocative, denote severally 
a particular relation, in which a person or thing stands either to an 
action, but without being immediately the object acted on (accu- 
sative), or to another person or thing. 

Obs. The dative and the ablative primarily denoted the local relation 
of a person or thing to an action; viz., the dative, the direction of the 
action towards something external to itself, or its taking place near it ; 
the ablative, the taking place of the action on or in something (also, at 
the same time its proceeding from a place, from being in a place). 
Subsequently, these cases were used of other relations, in which 
the imagination discovered a resemblance with the outward material 
relations. This now became the proper leading signification of these 
cases ; and the actual local relations were, for the most part, defined 
more closely through the medium of prepositions, sometimes with one 
of these special cases (the ablative), sometimes with the accusative, as 
the general form of the word. 

14 



210 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 241 

§ 241. The dative denotes, in general, that what is asserted by 
the predicate is done, or holds good, for and in reference to some 
particular person or thing (the relation of interest) : — 

Subsidium bellissimum senectuti est otium (Cic. de Or. I. 60). 
Charondas et Zaleucus leges civitatibus suis scripserunt (Id. 
Legg. II. 6). Domus pulchra dominis aedificatur, non muribus 
(Id. 1ST. D. III. 10). Foro nata eloqventia est (Id. Brut. 82). Non 
scholae, sed vitae discimus (Sen. Ep. 106). Sex. Roscius praedia 
coluit aliis, non sibi (Cic. Rose. Am. 17), for the benefit of. Nihil 
loci est segnitiae neqve socordiae (Ter. Andr. I. 3, 1). Orabo 
nato uxorem (Id. ib. III. 2, 47), i" will propose for Tier for my son. 
Filius Blaesi militibus missionem petebat (Tac. Ann. 1. 19), applied 
for discharge for the soldiers. 

Obs. 1. This dative, which is not (as in the following special rules) 
attached to a single word, but to the whole predicate, is commonly 
called Dativus commodi and incommodi. 

Obs. 2. The special signification in defence of (a person or thing) 
never resides in the dative, but is expressed by pro : Discere pro 
aliqvo, pugnare pro nobilitate, pro patria mori ; so also we find 
esse pro aliqvo, in his favor : Hoc non contra me est, sed pro me. 

Obs. 3. A whole proposition is sometimes qualified by a dative of 
interest, to show in reference to what a thing is so and so, instead 
of qualifying a single substantive by means of a genitive or preposition : 
Is finis populationibus fuit (Liv. II. 30. Also, popuiationum). 
Qvis huic rei testis est? (Cic. pro Quinct. 11). E bestiarum cor- 
poribus multa remedia morbis et vulneribus eligimus (Cic. N. D, 
II. 64. Also, contra morbos, or remedia morborum). Neqve 
mihi ex cujusqvam amplitudine aut praesidia periculis aut ad- 
jumenta honoribus qvaero (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 24, in which example 
the double dative should be remarked ; I seek for myself no protection 
against (in reference to) future dangers : adversus pericula, praesidia 
periculorum) . Aduatuci locum sibi domicilio delegerunt (Cses. 
B. G. II. 29). The poets take greater liberties in this respect: e.g. 
Dissimulant, qvae sit rebus causa novandis (Virg. iEn. IV. 290) ; 
otherwise, causa hujus rei novandae). (Longo bello materia, 
Tac. II. I. 89.) 

Obs. 4. We may particularly notice the use of the dative with the 
verb sum with a predicate noun, where it is specified in what relation 
one person stands to another : Murena legatus Lucullo fuit (Cic. pro 
Mur. 9), legatus with Lucidlus, of Lucullus. L. Mescinius heres est 
M. Mindio, fratri suo (Id. ad Fam. XIII. 26). Ducem esse alicui, 
to be one^s leader. 



§ 242 THE DATIVE. 211 

Obs. 5. Here we may also notice the dative with facio (fio), with 
qvid, idem, signifying to do with one (in relation to one) : e.g. qvid 
facies huic conclusioni ? (Cic. Acad. II. 30) . Qvid ? Eupolemo 
non idem Verres fecit? (Cic. Yerr. IV. 22). Qvid mihi futurum 
est? On the ablative in this signification (hoc homine), see § 267. 

Obs. 6. The dative of a participle is occasionally used to denote iclien 
(under what circumstances) a thing occurs : Sita Anticyra est in Lo- 
cride laeva parte sinum Corinthiacum intrantibus (Liv. XXVI. 
26), on tlie left to those who sail in = on the left as you sail in. Duo 
milites neqvaqvam visu ac specie aestimantibus pares (Liv. VII. 
10). 

§ 242. The dative is particularly joined to many verbs which 
in themselves denote an acting in reference to something. Many 
transitive verbs express an action, which, besides the object acted 
on, concerns another person or thing with reference to which it is 
performed, and therefore take two substantives, the proper object 
in the accusative, and a reference object, or more remote object, to 
which the action is directed, in reference to which it is performed, 
in the dative: Dedi puero librum; trado provinciam succes- 
sor! ; erranti viam monstro. The dative also stands with the 
passive of these verbs, the relation being the same: Liber puero 
datus est ; provincia successori traditur ; erranti via mon- 
stratur. 

Such verbs are, e.g., do, trado, tribuo, concedo ; divido, to dis- 
tribute ; fero, to bring ; praebeo, praesto, polliceor, promitto ; debeo, 
to be indebted ; nego, adimo, monstro, dico, narro, mando, praecipio, 
&c. (with which the more remote object is most frequently a person) . But, 
besides this, the dative stands with all expressions formed of a verb and 
an accusative, which in their combination denote a similar relation to a 
person or thing : e.g. modum ponere irae ; patefacere, praecludere 
aditum hosti ; fidem habere alicui, or narrationi alicujus ; morem 
gerere alicui, to humor a person; nullum locum relinqvere precibus, 
honestae morti; dicere (statuere) diem colloqvio,.^ fix a day for 
a conference. 

Obs. 1. This dative of the more remote object is sometimes properly 
used with Latin verbs, where, on account of the somewhat different mean- 
ing and construction of the English phrases commonly used in translating 
them, we should have expected a different construction in Latin. So we 
find probare alicui sententiam suam, to make his opinion agreeable to 
some one (in the passive, haec sententia mihi probatur) ; conciliare 
Pompejum Caesari, to make Pompey a friend to Ccesar, gain him over 



212 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 243 

to Ccesar; placare aliqvem alicui. Especially should we notice 
minari (minitari) alicui malum, mortem, to threaten one loiili a mis- 
fortune, with death (on the other hand, minari alicui baculo, abl. with 
the stick, as an instrument) . (The construction svadere alicui aliqvid 
is generally found only when the object is a pronoun : as, faciam, qvod 
mini svades ; otherwise, we most usually find svadere bellum (with- 
out a dative) ; or svadere alicui ut [to advise one to — ] . The same 
holds of persvadeo [in the passive, persvasum mini est, ut]). 

Obs. 2. In compound phrases, the usage sometimes fluctuates (com- 
pare § 241, Obs. 3) between the dative qualifying the whole phrase, and 
the genitive qualifying the object of the proposition : e.g. finem facere 
injuriis, to put an end to the injuries, to set bounds to them; but finem 
facere scribendi, to leave off writing. 

Obs. 3. In English, this relation of the more remote object is usually 
denoted by prepositions (for, to, &c). In Latin, ad can only stand 
when an actual motion to a place (or to a person in a place) is intended. 
We find dare alicui litteras, to give one a letter to take care of; but 
dare litteras ad aliqvem, to write a letter to some one ; mittere alicui 
aliqvid, to send one something (that he is to have) ; mittere legates 
ad aliqvem, mittere litteras alicui and ad aliqvem ; scribere ad ali- 
qvem, to write to some one; scribere alicui, to ivrite something for one ; 
dicere ad populum, to make a speech before the people (not to sag to 
the people). 

§ 243. A reference to something distinct from the proper object 
is often expressed by compounding the verb with one of the prepo- 
sitions ad, ante, circum (con), de, ex, in, inter, ob, post, prae, 
sub. With these verbs (both in the active and the passive), the 
more remote object to which the preposition applies is put in the 
dative. But if an actual or figurative local relation (motion to or 
from a place, a continuance or agency in a place) is clearly indi- 
cated by those verbs which are compounded with ad, de, ex, in, 
sub, then (in the best prose-writers) the preposition is usually 
repeated and constructed with its proper case : — 

a. Afferre reipublicae magnam utilitatem ; affere alicui vim, 
manus; consuli milites circumfundebantur ; circumdare brachia 
collo, to put onds arms round a persons neck; Gaesar Ambiorigi 
auxilia Menapiorum et Germanorum detraxit; urbs hostibus 
erepta est; inferre alicui injuriam; injicere hominibus timorem; 
imponere alicui negotium ; objicere aliqvem telis hostium ; hon- 
estas praefertur utilitati ; omnia virtuti postponi debent ; homines 
non libenter se alterius potestati subjiciunt; supponere ova 
gallinis. 



§ 243 THE DATIVE. 213 

b. (Manifest local relation) : Ad nos multi rumores afferuntur ; 
affigere litteram ad caput alicujus (Cic. Rose. Am. 20), to fasten it 
on his head; detrahere annulum de digito ; injicere se in hostes, 
into the midst of the enemy ; inscribere aliqvid in tabula; inferre 
signa in hostem ; 1 imponere in cervicibus honiinum sempiternum 
dominum fa figurative but manifest local relation) ; imprimere 
notionem in animis ; eripere aliqvem e periculo. 2 

Obs. 1. In the case of some verbs compounded with ad, the preposi- 
tion is repeated, even without its proper signification, in preference to 
employing the dative, especially with addo, adjicio : adjungo, to add 
(but adjungo mini aniicum, I gain myself a friend) : applico me ad 
virtutem, ad philosophiam, ad aliqvem doctorem, I attach myself 
to him: adhibeo ad aliqvid, to apply to any purpose. Subjicio 
and subjungo occur in derived signification with both constructions : 
Mummius Achajae urbes multas sub imperium populi Romani 
subjunxit; subjicio aliqvid oculis and sub oculos, to place some- 
thing (under) before one's eyes, sensibus and sub sensus. We read 
extorqvere alicui gladium and pecuniam ab aliqvo; impendere 
pecuniam, operam in aliqvid, and (in later writers) alicui rei. 

Obs. 2. The verbs compounded with cum usually repeat the preposi- 
tion : confero, comparo, compono aliqvid cum aliqvo, conjungo 
eloqventiam cum philosophia. Yet we find also the dative : Ennius 
eqvi fortis senectuti comparat suam (Cic. Cat. M. o) ; parva com- 
ponere magnis. Tibi me studia communia beneficiaqve tua jam 
ante conjunxerant (Cic. ad Fam. XY. 11). We find always, com- 
munico aliqvid cum aliqvo. 

Obs. 3. The later writers (from Livy downwards) use the dative with 
increasing frequency, even in an improper signification, like the poets : 
e.g. incidere nomen saxis (Plin. Min. Incidere legem in aes; 
foedus in columna incisum, Cic). Insculpere elogium tuniulo 
(Svet.). 

Obs. 4. The dative is also sometimes put with continuo (laborem 
nocturnum diurno, cause it to follow immediately after), socio, jungo, 
on account of their similarity in signification with these compound verbs. 



1 [Inferretqve deos Latio (Yirg. ^n. I 6).] 

2 The following verbs, as well as some others, belong to this class : affero, affigO, 
admisceo, admoveo, circurndo, circumfundo, circumjicio, circumpono, 
detraho, decutio, deripio, detero, eripio, extorqveo, impono, imprimo, in- 
fero, injicio, interpono, objicio, offero, offundo, oppono, praeficio, subdo, 
subjicio, subjungo, suppono, subtraho (superpono); and those which denote a 
comparison: antefero, antepono, praefero, praepono, posthabeo, postpono; 
to these we may add aufero. 



214 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 244 

(Sapientia juncta eloqventiae, Cic.) So also aeqvare aliqvem 
alicui, to put one person on a level with another; aeqvare turrim 
muris, to make the tower equal to the walls, i.e. to build it as high. 

Obs. 5. For another construction with adspergo, circumdo, and 
some other verbs, see § 259, b. 

§ 244. a. The dative is also used for the more remote object with 
various intransitive verbs, which denote an action, state of mind, or 
condition, with reference to a person or thing, but without convey- 
ing (to a Latin) the idea of an immediate acting upon it (e.g. to 
benefit, to injure, to please, &c.) : — 

Prodesse reipublicae et civibus ; nocere hosti ; nemo omnibus 
placere potest ; magnus animus victis parcit. 

The most important of these are : — 

a. (Those which signify to benefit, to injure) : prosum, obsum, 
noceo, incommodo, expedit, conducit. 1 

b. (To be for or against, to yield) : adversor, obtrccto, officio, 
cedo, suffragor, refragor, intercedo, gratificor. 

c. (To be well or ill affected) : cupio (alicui, to wish one ivell), 
faveo, gratulor, studeo ignosco, indulgeo, invideo, 2 insidior. 

d. (To assist, to take care for, to remedy, to spare) : auxilior, 
opitulor, patrocinor, 3 consulo, prospicio, medeor (sano governs 
the ace), parco. 

e. (To please, to displease) : placeo, displiceo. 

f. (To order, obey, serve, advise, persuade) : impero, 4 obedio, 
obseqvor, obtempero, pareo, servio, famulor, suadeo, persuadeo. 

g. (To be friendly or unfriendly, or to speak as such) : assentior, 
blandior, irascor, succenseo, convicior, maledico, minor. 

h. (To trust, to distrust) : credo, fido, confido, diffido. 5 
i. Desum (liber mihi deest, I have not the book ; amicis, officio 
deesse, not to support one's friends, not to do one's duty ; 6 nubo, to 
marry (used only of a woman) ; 7 propinqvo (appropinqvo), to ap- 
proach ; supplico, to implore ; 8 videor, to seem. 

1 Laedo, to injure, offend, transitive, aliqvem or aliqvid. 

2 Invideo is followed by the dative either of the person or the thing ; invideo tibi and 
invideo felicitati tuae. When both person and thing are to be expressed, the usual con- 
struction is, e.g., Caesaris laudi invidebat, ignosco festinationi alicujus. 

3 Adjuvo aliqvem, to aid, further, transitive. 

4 Jubeo aliqvid, aliqvem facere aliqvid, transitive. 

e Fido and confido (rarely diffido) also govern the ablative. 

6 Careo, to be without, dispense with, re aliqva. Deficio, to fail, frequently with the 
accusative (vox oratorem). 

7 Nupta alicui and cum aliqvo. 

8 Precor, to entreat, deos, transitive. 



§ 244 THE DATIVE'. 215 

k. (To happen, to befall) : accidit, contingit, evenit. 

I. Libet, licet. The same is the construction of the phrases obviam 
eo (obvius sum, fio), praesto sum; dicto audiens sum (alicui), to 
listen to a man, obey him ; supplex sum, auctor sum (alicui, to advise 
one). 

b. This more remote object cannot, like the proper object, become 
the subject with the passive ; and such verbs (like those which are 
intransitive) can only be used impersonally in the passive, in which 
case the dative follows without alteration : — 

Invidetur {men envy) praestanti florentiqve fortunae (Cic. de 
Or. II. 52). Non parcetur labori (Id. ad Att. II. 14). Nemini 
nocetur; legibus parendum est {one must obey). Obtrectatum est 
adhuc Gabinio (Id. pro Leg. Man. 19). Divitibus invideri solet, 
men are accustomed to envy. Mini nunqvam persvaderi potuit, 
animos esse mortales (Cic. Cat. M. 22), no man has ever been able to 
convince me. 

The beginner must take particular care that he is not misled by the 
English phrases, I am envied, maligned, &c, to use the verbs, obtrecto, 
invideo, parco, maledico, and studeo, personally in the passive. 

Obs. 1. With some verbs the construction varies between the dative 
and the accusative, according to the meaning. 1 Metuo, timeo, caveo, 
signify, with an accusative (aliqvem, aliqvid) , to fear some one (some- 
thing), to beware of something (an evil, an enemy) ; with a dative, 
to be (from a motive of kindness) anxious or apprehensive for some- 
thing: e.g. timeo libertati, caveo veteranis (poetically, mater pallet 
pueris). 2 Prospicio and provideo, with a dative, signify, to be pro- 
spectively anxious about a thing : e.g. prospicere saluti, providere 
vitae hominum ; with an accusative, to take care for the providing of 
something, e.g. frumentum. Tempero aliqvid, to order, to regulate 
(properly, to mix) : e.g. rempublicam legibus ; moderor aliqvid, to 
conduct, arrange ; e.g. consilia ; with a dative, to moderate : e.g. tem- 
pero, moderor irae, laetitiae. Consulo, see § 223, b, Obs. 

Obs. 2. Some few verbs are used both with the accusative and the 
dative without any perceptible difference in their signification : adulor 
(generally the accusative), aemulor (almost always the accusative), 
comitor, despero (salutem and saluti ; pace desperata, after the hope 
of peace ivas given up), praestolor. In poetry, verbs of contending, 
&c. (certo, pugno, luctor), with the dative instead of the ablative 
with cum; e.g. Frigida pugnabant calidis (Ov. Met. I. 19). 



1 [Consulere sibi and se (Cic. Cat. II. 27).] 

2 Caveo (mini) ab aliqvo, ab aliqva re, to be on one's guard against a person or 
thing. 



216 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 245 

Obs. 3. Some few of these verbs have also such a transitive signification, 
that they may take (according to § 242) both a proper object in the ac- 
cusative and a more remote object : as, credo alicui aliqvid, to trust a 
thing to any one (aliqvid creditur alicui) ; impero provinciae 
tributum, milites, to command a province to pay tribute, to furnish 
troops (tributum imperatur provinciae) ; minor alicui mortem (see 
§ 242, Obs. 1) ; prospicere, providere exercitui frumentum. (In- 
video alicui aliqvam rem, — whence res invidenda, a thing for which 
a person is to be envied, — but more commonly aliqva re. See § 260, 6.) 

Obs. 4. To change such a dative into the subject of a proposition, 
and to use the verb personally in the passive, is a rare irregularity : 
Ego cur, acqvirere pauca si possum, invideor ? (Hor. A. P. 56). 
Vix eqvidem credor (Ov. Trist. III. 10, 35). Medendis corporibus 
(Liv. VIII. 36), by the healing of the bodies. 

Obs. 5. In a few instances, a substantive which is derived from a 
verb that governs the dative, and denotes the idea contained in it, is 
itself constructed alone with the dative : Insidiae consuli non pro- 
cedebant (Sail. Cat. 32), the plots against the consul did not succeed. 
Obtemperatio legibus (Cic. Legg. I. 15). 

§ 245. a. The intransitive verbs compounded with the preposi- 
tions ad, ante (con), in, inter, ob, post, prae, re, sub, super, like 
the transitive verbs similarly compounded (§ 243), take the dative 
to express relation to another object; namely, that to which the 
preposition applies, if the compound verb has a secondary meaning, 
which suggests no idea of any local relation ; e.g. : — 

Adesse amicis, antecellere omnibus, instare victis et fugienti- 
bus, indormire causae (to sleep over a cause), intervenire, interesse 
praelio, occurrere venientibus, praeesse exercitui, resistere inva- 
dentibus, respondere exspectationi, subvenire egentibus, suc- 
cumbere dolori. The dative remains unaltered, if the verb stands 
impersonally in the passive : Resistitur audaciae hominum ; egenti- 
bus subveniendum est. 1 



i Such verbs are adjaceo, alludo, annuo, arrepo, arrideo, aspiro, assentior, 
assidoo, asto, antecedo, anteso, antecello (see § 224, d); coiludo, congruo, 
consentio, convenire (to befitting, suitable; convenire cum, to agree with; pax, 
res Convenit inter nos, we are agreed about peace, the matter) ; consto (mihi), COn- 
s6no, incumbo (incubo), indormio, inhaereo, illudo (auetoritati; also transi- 
tive, praecepta), immorior, innascor, innitor, insto, insisto, insulto (alicui in 
calamitate ; also, patientiam alicujus); interjaceo (rarely with an accusative), in- 
tervenio, occumbo (morti, but more frequently mortem or morte, in death); 
obrepo, obsto, obstrepo, obtingo, obvenio, obversor, praesidio, repugno, 
resisto, succumbo, supersto, with the compounds of sum. 



§246 



THE DATIVE. 217 



b. But if a local relation be clearly designed, though only figura- 
tively, the preposition with its case is commonly used : — 

Adhaeret navis ad scopulum. Inhaeret sententia in animo. 
Ajax incubuit in gladium. Se Veritas inest in vultu. Incurrere 
in hostes ; invehi in aliqvem ; incurrere in reprehensionem ; in- 
cidere in periculum, in morbum (to fall) : concurrere, congredi cum 
hoste ; cohaerere cum aliqvo. 

Sometimes a different preposition is employed to denote the local 
relation more accurately ; e.g. obrepere in animum, obversari ante 
oculos. 

Obs. 1. In individual verbs, we must particularly notice the way in 
which the idea is conceived ; so we have incumbo in or ad studium 
aliqvod, to apply one's self to a study ; acqviesco in aliqvo, to acquiesce 
in any thing, to find composure in it. In general, the older prose- 
writers more frequently repeat the preposition (e.g. always insum in) ; 
the poets and later writers use the dative more (inesse rei) , even 
where the verb has its own proper signification : e.g. accidere genibus 
praetoris (Livy; we find in Cicero, ad pedes alicujus), congredi 
alicui, cohaerere alicui. 

Obs. 2. The preposition is never repeated with adjaceo, assideo, 
asto (assidere alicui, not ad aliqvem) ; accedo, on the other hand, 
never has the dative, except in the signification to join, to go over to (an 
opinion, a party), accedo Ciceroni, sententiae Ciceronis, or when it 
means to he added; otherwise, the construction is always accedo ad. 
In the poets and some few prose- writers (chiefly of a later age), the 
accusative is sometimes found after the compounds of jaceo, sedeo, and 
those verbs which denote motion, with ad in its proper signification (i.e. 
applied to space), without the preposition being repeated : e.g. assidere 
muros, adjacere Etruriam (Livy) ; allabi oras, accedere aliqvem 
(Sail.), advolvi genua. On the verbs compounded with ante, and on 
praesto, see § 224, d. 

§ 246. The verb sum stands with the dative, to denote that some- 
thing exists for (is possessed by) a person or thing : — 

Sex nobis filii sunt. Homini cum deo similitudo est (Cic. Legg. 
I. 8). Jam Troicis temporibus erat hoiios eloqventiae (Cic. Brut. 
10). Controversia mini fuit cum avunculo tuo (Cic. Fin. III. 2). 
Rhodiis cum populo Romano amicitia societasqve est, the Rho- 
dium are friends and allies of the Romans. 

Obs. 1. This form of expression is commonly used only to denote 
what belongs to a person or thing as a possession or given relation, not 
of what appertains to it as a quality or as a constituent part. We should 
therefore avoid such phrases as Ciceroni magna fuit eloqventia (for in 



218 LATIN GRAMMAR. §247 

Cicerone) , or Huic provinciae urbes sunt opulentissimae tres (for 
Haec provincia urbes habet, or In hac provincia sunt, &c). 

Obs. 2. In the expression mini (tibi, ei rei) est nomen, cognomen, 
/ have the name, am called (nomen mini manet, I retain the name, 
datum, inditum est) the name itself stands either in the nominative (in 
apposition to nomen) : Ei morbo nomen est avaritia (Cic. Tusc. 
IV. 11) ; or (more frequently) in the dative (by attraction to mini, 
&e.) : Scipio, cui postea Africano cognomen fuit (Sail. Jug. 5). 
Leges decemvirales, qvibus tabulis duodecim est nomen (Liv. 
III. 57), which are called the twelve tables. Puero ab inopia Egerio 
inditum nomen (Td. I. 34). Yet the name may also stand in the 
genitive, governed by nomen; e.g. Q. Metello Macedonici nomen 
inditum est (Yell. I. 11). With active expressions such as nomen do, 
dico alicui, the same constructions are found (the accusative taking the 
place of the nominative) : Filius, cui Ascanium parentes dixere 
nomen (Liv. I. 1) ; ei cognomen damus tardo (Hor. Sat. I. 3, 58) ; 
but the dative is more generally employed. 

Obs. 3. The following expression is imitated from the Greek: Ali- 
qvid (e.g. militia) mihi volenti est, a thing is agreeable to my wish, 
properly, is related to me as toishing it (Sail. Jug. 84). 

§ 247. a. The dative (according to its general signification, 
§ 241) is put with adjectives, to denote that a thing has a certain 
quality for a person or thing ; e.g. : — 

Civis utilis reipublicae ; res tibi facilis, ceteris difficilis ; onus 
grave ferentibus ; homo omnibus gratus et carus ; oratio plebi 
accepta. 

Obs. The adjectives proprius and dignus (which do not denote any 
particular definite quality) are constructed otherwise. See § 290, f, and 
§ 268, a. 

b. The dative is particularly put with certain adjectives, which 
in themselves denote a reference to something else, as a friendly 
or unfriendly disposition, similarity, nearness (amicus, inimicus, 
aeqvus, iniqvus, propitius, infensus, infestus, &c, with obnoxius, 
subject; par, impar, dispar, similis, dissimilis, consentaneus, 
contrarius, aeqvalis, of the same age ; propinqvus, propior, proxi 
mus, vicinus, finitimus, conterminus, affinis, cognatus) ; e.g. : — 

Siculi Verri inimici infestiqve sunt; verbum Latinum par 
Graeco et qvod idem valeat (Cic. Fin. II. 4) ; locus propinqvus 
urbi. Nihil est tam cognatum mentibus nostris qvam numeri 
(rhythm) atqve voces (Cic. de Or. III. 51). 



§ 248 THE DATIVE. 219 

Obs. 1. Some such adjectives are frequently used in speaking of per- 
sons (or what is considered as a person) as substantives with the geni- 
tive ; viz., amicus, inimicus (arnica, inimica, also familiaris, a 
confidant) , par (onds like or equal) , aeqvalis, cognatus, propinqvus 
(& relation, also necessarius), affinis, vicinus. Amicus, inimicus, 
and familiaris are so used, even in the superlative : regis amicissi- 
mus ; inimicissimus illius ; familiarissimus meus. (Also iniqvi 
mei, nostri, invidi nostri.) Thus, too, we generally find, superstes 
omnium suorum, one who lias survived all Ms friends, — less frequently, 
superstes alicui. 

Obs. 2. Similis (consimilis, adsimilis) and dissimilis are put in 
the best writers both with the genitive and the dative ; and, in the ear- 
lier writers, almost always with the genitive of the names of living 
beings (especially gods and men) : similis igni and ignis, similis pa- 
tris, similis mei, sui, nostri. 

Obs. 3. The poets say not only dissimilis, but also diversus alicui, 
instead of ab aliqvo {different from), and use the verbs discrepo, 
differo, disto, dissideo, with the dative instead of with ab ; Qvid dis- 
tant aera lupinis ? (Hor.) 

Obs. 4. Affinis, signifying concerned in, governs both the dative and 
the genitive : Affinis ei turpitudini ; affinis rei capitalis. 

Obs. 5. Propior and proximus are also put with the accusative. See 
§ 230, Obs. 2 (after subter). 

Obs. 6. Those adjectives which denote an aptitude for any thing 
(aptus, habilis, idoneus, accommodatus, paratus), have more often 
ad than the dative : orator ad nullam causam idoneus ; homo 
ad rem militarem aptus. Idoneus arti cuilibet (Hor.). They 
govern the dative in the signification suited, fitted : oratores aptissimi 
concionibus; histriones fabulas sibi accommodatissimas eli- 
gunt. (Alienum nostrae dignitati, unsuited to our dignity. See 
§ 268, b.) 

Obs. 7. The dative is also put with the adverbs convenienter, 
congruenter, constanter, obseqventer; e.g. vivere convenienter 
naturae, dicere constanter sibi. 

Obs. 8. The poets sometimes employ the dative after idem (in any 
case but the nom.), instead of atqve with the nominative; Invitum 
qvi servat, idem facit occidenti (Hor. A. P. 467), the same as he who 
kills him. 

§ 248. The datives mihi, nobis (sometimes tibi, vobis), are put 
with expressions of surprise and reprehension, with demands or 
with questions about a person, in order to denote a certain degree 
of concern or sympathy : — 



220 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 249 

Qvid ait nobis Sannio ? what does our Sannio say ? Qvid mini 
Celsus agit? how is my Celsus? Hie mini qvisqvam misericor- 
diam nominat? (Sail. Cat. 52), ivill any one here speak to me of pity*? 
Haec vobis iilorum per biduum militia fuit (Liv. XXII. 60). 
(Dativus Ethicus.) 

Obs. Qvid tibi vis ? what do you want ? what do you mean by that? 
Qvid sibi vult haec oratio ? What do these words mean ? Qvid 
haec sibi dona voluerunt ? 

§ 249. The dative sometimes denotes the design and operation 
of a thing (that which it subserves, and to which it tends). In this 
way the dative is used with sum, and with the verbs which signify 
to impute, assume, or take; and in some other phrases with do, 
habeo, sumo, capio, pono (to give, have, take, or place as some- 
thing) ; so likewise the datives praesidio, subsidio, auxilio, 1 with 
verbs which denote a movement and position (in war). The verb 
has often another dative at the same time, which denotes to whom 
a thing is serviceable for this or that purpose ; cui bono est ? who 
is benefited? 

Incumbite in studium eloqventiae, ut et vobis honori, et ami- 
cis utilitati, et reipublicae emolumento esse possitis (Cic. de Or. 
I. 8) . Esse usui, impedimento, esse argumento, documento, testi- 
monio. 2 Summam laudem S. Roscio vitio et culpae dedisti (Cic. 
Rose. Am. 16) . Neqve hoc ei qvisqvam tribuebat superbiae (Corn. 
Timol. 4). Laudi, honori, probro vertere, ducere, habere aliqvid 
alicui ; dare alicui aliqvid muneri, dono (also donum, in apposi- 
tion) ; habere rempublicam qvaestui (as a source of gam) ; habere 
aliqvid religioni (to make conscience of a thing) ; ludibrio, con- 
temptui habere; ponere aliqvid pignori; locum capere castris; 
Aduatici locum sibi, domicilio delegerunt (Cass. B. G. II. 29) . Ve- 
jentes Sabinis auxilio eunt. Caesar legiones duas castris prae- 
sidio relinqvit. (Canere receptui, to sound a retreat.) 3 

Obs. Especially is the dative of a substantive having a gerundive 
agreeing with it used (even after a substantive) to denote a purpose and 
destination ; e.g. decemviri legibus scribendis. See § 415. 



1 [Custodiae : Custodiae ex suis ac praesidio reliquerunt (Cacs. B. G. II. 29).] 

2 Esse odio, to be hated; esse alicui magnae curae, to be a subject of great anxiety 
to a person; est alicui COrdi, it pleases hi?n, is agreeable to him. (Wo also meet with the 
expression, maximum est argumentum, the strongest argument is — , but est argu- 
mentum, documentum alone, with a dependent proposition, is unusual in the best 
writers.) 

3 [Hinc populum . . . venturum excidio Libyae (Virg. Mn. I. 22).] 



§ 252 THE ABLATIVE. 221 

§ 250. a. With passive verbs the agent is sometimes put in the 
dative instead of the ablative with ab ; in prose, however, with the 
idea somewhat modified, since it denotes, either that the action is 
done for the interest of the agent, or (in the perfect and pluper- 
fect) that it exists for him as completed : — 

Sic dissimillimis bestiis communiter cibus qvaeritur (Cic. 
N. D. II. 48). Haec omnibus pertractata esse possunt (Id. de 
Or. II. 31). Res mini tota provisa est (Id. Verr. IV. 42). But in 
the poets even without this distinction; Carmina qvae scribuntur 
aqvae potoribus (Hor. Ep. I. 19, 3). 

b. On the other hand, the dative is regularly put with the gerun- 
dive and gerund, to denote the person who has to do something 
(whose duty a thing is) : — 

Hoc mini faciendum est; haec pueris legenda sunt (the boys 
must read this), See §§ 420 and 421. 

§ 251. The poets use the dative, in order to express the direction of 
a motion toioards : It clamor caelo (Virg. iEn. V. 451 = ad coelum 
versus). Spolia conjiciunt igni (i.q. in ignem, Id. ib. XI. 194). 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE ABLATIVE, 



§ 252. The Ablative denotes, in general, that a thing, though not 
standing in the relation of the direct or more remote object indi- 
cated by the accusative and dative, belongs to the predicate, serving 
to complete and define it more accurately (stands with the thing 
predicated as a circumstance attending it, or a thing pertaining to 
it). The ablative is used in this way either with the prepositions 
given in § 172, 1, or alone: for those cases in which the ablative 
is used without a preposition, the rules are given below. 

Obs. Xearly everywhere where the ablative stands in Latin, a prepo- 
sition (as in, through, on, from, with, by) is used in English. This dif- 
ference should be carefully noted by beginners. The general divisions 
which are made in classifying the Latin ablatives sometimes approximate 
so nearly, that it cannot be easily determined to which class some par- 
ticular cases belong. 



222 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 254 

§ 253. The ablative denotes that with regard to which something 
is predicated of the subject : — 

Aeger pedibus (in the feet) ; claudus altero pede ; captus ocu- 
lis ; eloqventia praestantior (in eloquence) ; nulla re inferior ; 
aetate et gloria antecellere ; natione Gallus (by nation) ; centum 
numero (in number) erant. Sunt qvidam homines non re, sed 
nomine (not in reality, but in name) . Specie urbs libera est, re vera 
omnia ad nutum Romanorum fiunt (Liv. XXXV. 31). Non tu 
qvidem tota re, sed temporibus errasti (Cic. Phil. II. 9). 

Obs. With regard to is expressed by ad in connection with adjectives, 
when mention is made of something external to the subject, with regard 
to which judgment is passed on the subject : accusare multos qvum 
periculosum est turn sordidum ad famam (Cic. Off. II. 14). Nulla 
est species (sight) pulchrior et ad rationem sollertiamqve (in 
inspect of their wise arrangement) praestantior qvam solis lunaeqve 
cursuum (Cic. 1ST. D. II. 62) . On the side of or in the direction of where 
the situation and condition of a person or thing are spoken of, is also 
expressed by ab : Caesar metuebat, ne a re frumentaria laboraret 
(Caes. B. G. VII. 10), lest he should be embarrassed with respect to pro- 
visions ; mediocriter a doctrina instructus. 

§ 254. The ablative is used to denote the means and instrument, 
by and with which a thing takes place or is done (ablativus instru- 
menti) : — 

^Tanu gladium tenere ; capite onus sustinere ; securi aliqvem 
percutere ; amorem forma et moribus conciliare ; servari cura et 
opera alicujus ; aliqvid animo (scientia, amore, numero), com- 
prehendere, vexare aliqvem injuriis et contumeliis ; veneno ex- 
stingvi. Britanni lacte et carne vivunt. Lycurgus leges suas 
auctoritate Apollinis Delphici confirmavit. Lege Julia Latini civi- 
tatem Romanam consecuti sunt. 

Obs. 1. The thing which, with passive verbs, stands as the means, 
is, in active propositions, often put in the nominative as the agent: 
e.g. in the passive, Dei providentia mundus regitur; in the 
active, Dei providentia mundum regit; but also Deus providentia 
sua mundum regit. In the passive, a thing is only represented 
as acting (and this is done by adding the preposition ab, instead of 
using the mere ablativus instrument!), when it is thought of as a per- 
son : e.g. Non est consentaneum qvi metu non frangatur, eum 
frangi cupiditate, nee, qvi invictum se a labore praestiterit, vinci 
a voluptate (Cic. Off. I. 20), labor and voluptas are personified as par- 
ties in the struggle. Eo a natura ipsa ducimur ; but, natura fit, ut 
liberi a parentibus amentur. (Piget dicere, ut vobis animus ab 



§ 255 THE ABLATIVE. 223 

ignavia atqve socordia corruptus sit, Sail. Jug. 31. The more usual 
construction would omit ab.) 

Obs. 2. Some poets use ab where the ablativus instruments would 
usually stand in prose : e.g. Turbinem celer assveta versat ab arte 
puer (Tib. I. 5, 4), by the help of his ivonted art. Sidereo siccata 
ab aestu (Ov. Met. VI. 341). * 

Obs. 3. When it is intended to denote that a thing is effected by the 
employment of a rational agent, the ablative is not used, but per : 
Augustus per legatos suos bellum administrabat (also opera 
legatorum). But the ablative may stand when the person is named 
simply as a substitute for the thing it implies : e.g. testibus for tes- 
tium dictis ; or when it is considered as a thing : e.g. bodies of troops : 
Jacent (they are convicted) suis testibus (Cic. pro Mil. 18). Hos- 
tem sagittariis et funditoribus eminus terrcbat (Sail. Jug. 94). 
(On the contrary, of animals ; bubus arare, eqvo vehi, like curru.) 

§ 255. The ablativus instrumenti is used in Latin, in some con- 
structions, where the notion of a mean or instrument is not conveyed in 
the English expression which most nearly corresponds to them : e.g. 
extollere aliqvem honoribus (by posts of distinction, instead of 
which we should say, in English, to posts of distinction) ; erudire ali- 
qvem artibus et disciplinis (but also, erudire aliqvem in jure 
civili, of a particular department of instruction) . In such expressions 
as florere (opibus et gratia) and valere (T. Coruncanius plurimum 
ingenio valuit), we have at the same time the idea of abundance. See 
§ 259. (Sacrificatum est majoribus hostiis, greater victims were 
sacrificed ; faciam vitula pro frugibus.) 

Obs. 1. With verbs which signify to value, to judge, to classify, &c, 
the ablative denotes that by which the valuation is regulated (the means 
and measure of the valuation) : Non numero haec judicantur, sed 
pondere. Magnos homines virtute metimur, non fortuna (Corn. 
Eum. 1). Populus Romanus descriptus erat censu, ordinibus, 
aetatibus (Cic. Legg. III. 19). Amicitiae caritate et amore cer- 
nuntur (Id. Part. Or. 25). Hecato utilitate ofiicium dirigit magis 
qvam humanitate (Cic. Off. III. 23). 

Obs. 2. Some verbs which signify to enclose, to hold, to receive, are 
sometimes followed by the ablative of the place by which the enclosing 
is effected, instead of the preposition in; as, includere aliqvem 
carcere (in car cere, usually in carcerem), versu aliqvid con- 
cludere, recipere, invitare aliqvem tecto, urbe (usually aliqvem 
in civitatem, in ordinem senatorium, aliqvem domum recipere), 
tenere se castris (copias in castris continere), tollere aliqvem 

1 [Torrida ab igni (Virg. Georg. I. 234).] 



224 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 256 

rheda. Especially contineri aliqva re, to be composed of, to rest 
upon; artes, qvae conjectura continentur. Consto, to consist of, is 
usually constructed with ex (ex animo et corpore), sometimes with 
in, or the ablative only. 

§ 256. The ablative denotes the motive (in the agent himself) 
from which, or the influence through which (by virtue of which), a 
thing is done (ablativus causae moventis) : — 

Incendi dolore, ira incitari, ardere studio, cupiditate occaecari, 
caecus avaritia, exsultare gaudio. Multi homines officia dese- 
runt mollitia animi (Cic. Finn. I. 10). Qvod benevolentia fit, id 
odio factum criminaris (Id. Rose. Am. 15) . Qvidam morbo ali- 
qvo et sensus stupore svavitatem cibi non sentiunt (Id. Phil. II. 
45). Servius Tullius regnare coepit non jussu, sed voluntate 
atqve concessu civium (Id. P. P. II. 21). (Conversely: injussu 
imperatoris de statione discedere.) Veni ad eum ipsius rogatu 
arcessituqve (Cic. N". D. I. 6). 

(So permissu, coactu, efilagitatu, hortatu alicujus facere aliqvid, 
&c, with verbal substantives, which are used only in the ablative, § 55, 
4). 1 Romano more filii puberes cum parentibus non lavantur 
(Id. Off. I. 35) . Cimon Atheniensium legibus emitti e vinculis non 
poterat, nisi pecuniam solvisset (Corn. Cim. I.). 

Obs. 1. The ablative of the motive is put most frequently with in- 
transitive and passive verbs, which denote the state of mind of the sub- 
ject, and more especially with their participles, when they qualify the 
subject of a proposition, where, in English, we often only say, out of. 
(Adductus, ardens, commotus, incitatus, incensus, impulsus ira, 
odio, haec feci, / did this out of anger, hatred.) Livy says, also : ab 
ira, ab odio, ab insita animis levitate, on account of (out of) anger, 
&c. (A preventing cause is expressed by prae : prae moerore, prae 
lacrimis loqvi non possum, I cannot speak for tears. Gens suarum 
rerum impotens prae domesticis discordiis, Liv. IX. 14.) (Per 
me licet, as far as I am concerned, for all me; qvi per aetatem pot- 
erant, by reason of age.) 

Obs. 2. According to is more accurately expressed by ex; Coloniae 
ex foedere milites dare debebant. 

Obs. 3. We must also notice the expressions, mea (tua, &c.) sen- 
tentia, meo judicio, in my (your) opinion: Curio mea sententia vel 
eloqventissimus temporibus illis fuit (Cic. de Or. II. 23). So- 
crates omnium eruditorum testimonio totiusqve judicio Graeciae 
qvum prudentia et acumine turn vero eloqventia omnium fuit 
facile princeps (Id. ib. III. 16). (The ablative here denotes that on 
the strength of which a person forms or expresses an opinion.) 

1 Injussu is used also as an adverb without a genitive (Liv.). 



§ 258 THE ABLATIVE. 225 

§ 257. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of are put 
with (and usually after) a genitive or possessive pronoun : — 

Reipublicae causa accusare aliqvem ; tua causa hoc facio ; dolo- 
rum effugiendorum gratia voluptates omittere. 

Obs. 1. Without a genitive or possessive pronoun, we have ea de 
causa, or ea causa ; justis causis, ea gratia. 

Obs. 2. With these exceptions, the cause (signifying that for the sake 
of which a thing is done) is not expressed by the ablative, but by the 
prepositions ob and propter (or by causa, gratia). Yet from a con- 
ciseness of expression the use of the ablative of means or motive comes 
very near to denoting the cause, and is almost identical with it ; e.g. 
Levitate armorum et qvotidiana exercitatione nihil hostibus 
noceri poterat (Caes. B. G. V. 34, i.q. efficiebatur, ut nihil no- 
ceri posset). The distinction between the ablative of the motive 
(in the subject itself) and the mode of exactly expressing the cause 
may be seen from the following example : Non tam ob recentia ulla 
merita qvam originum memoria (Liv. XXXVIII. 39), remembering 
their origin. 

Obs. 3. Here we may notice the use of the ablative eo, and occasion- 
ally hoc, in the signification on that account ( = ideo) : Homines 
suorum mortem eo lugent, qvod eos orbatos vitae commodis 
arbitrantur (Cic. Tusc. I. 13). (Millia frumenti tua triverit area 
centum, Non tuus hoc capiet venter plus ac meus, Hor. Sat. I. 
1, 46.) 

§ 258. The ablative of a substantive qualified by an adjective 
(participle) or pronoun, denotes the way in which a thing is done, 
the accompanying circumstances under which it is done (ablativus 
modi). With those substantives which in themselves denote a way 
or manner (modo, more, ratione, ritu, sometimes consvetudine, 
habitu), a genitive may be put instead of the adjective. 

Miltiades summa aeqvitate res Chersonesi constituit (Corn. 
Milt. 2), ivith the greatest justice. Deos pura, integra incorrupta et 
mente et voce venerari debemus (Cic. N. D. II. 28). Summa 
vi insistere. More Carnadeo disputare. Fieri nullo modo (pacto) 
potest. Apis more modoqve carmina fingo (Hor. Od. IV. 2, 27). 
Voluptas pingitur pulcherrimo vestitu et ornatu regali (in, or with, 
the most beautiful vestments and royal magnificence) in solio sedens 
(Cic. Fin. II. 21). (Also, habitu reginae, in the garb of a queen.) 
Ire agmine qvadrato. Allobrogum legati pontem Mulvium 
magno comitatu ingrediuntur (Id. in Cat. III. 2), with a numerous 

15 



226 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 2Z3 

suite) . Obvius fit Miloni Clodius, expeditus, in eqvo, nulla rheda, 
nullis impedimentis (Id. pro Mil. 10), without a carriage, without bag- 
gage. 

So nullo ordine, nullo negotio, without difficulty, &c. Saltus 
haud sine clade, majore tamen jumentorum qvam hominum 
pernicie, superatus est (Liv. XXI. 35). Nonum jam annum velut 
in acie adversus optimates sto maximo privatim periculo, nullo 
publice emolumento (Id. VI. 39) . Yet the preposition cum is often 
introduced when something accompanying the action, or externally 
connected with it, is spoken of: e.g. magno studio aliqvem adju- 
vare, and cum magno studio adesse (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 24) ; cum 
labore operoso et molesto moliri aliqvid (Id. N. D. II. 23) ; cum 
omni gravitate et jucunditate aliqvid explicare (Id. de Or. I. 13). 
Romani cum magno gaudio Horatium accipiunt (Liv. I. 25). 
Sedere cum (in) tunica pulla (Cic. Verr. IV. 24). 

Obs. 1 . On the other hand, cum can never be put with those sub- 
stantives which, in themselves, denote a way and manner (modo, &c), 
or a disposition and purpose (hac mente, hoc consilio feci, aeqvo 
animo fero), or a condition (ea condicione, ea lege, on the condition), 
nor yet with the parts of the body : nudo capite, promisso capillo 
incedere. 

Obs. 2. If the name of that which accompanies the action, and is 
manifested by it, has no adjective or pronoun agreeing with it, the 
preposition cum is employed : e.g. cum cura scribere (not cura 
alone), cum fide exponere, cum virtute vivere. Multa facere im- 
pure atqve taetre, cum temeritate et imprudentia (Cic. Div. I. 
29). Some ablatives, however, are excepted, which, in certain com- 
binations, are used alone adverbially ; as, ordine, ratione (recte atqve 
ordine facere, via et ratione disputare), more, jure, injuria, con- 
sensu, clamore, silentio (also cum clamore, cum silentio), dolo, 
fraude, vi, vitio (in the phrase, vitio creatus), agmine (ire, in the 
order of march). (Non proeliis neqve acie bellum gerere, Sail. Jug. 
54, of the way and means chosen. Versibus aliqvid scribere.) The 
preposition per is sometimes used in almost the very same sense, to 
denote in a certain way : e.g. per vim (multa dolo, pleraqve per 
vim audebanturj Liv. XXXIX. 8), per simulationem ; per scelus 
et latrocinium aliqvid auferre (Cic. Verr. I. 21) ; per litteras, in 
writing; per causam exercendorum remigum (Caes. B. C. III. 24), 
under the pretext. 

Obs. 3. Cum must always be put to express any thing that a 
person has with or on him (except his dress), even if an adjective 
be added ; servus comprehensus est cum gladio, and cum magno 
gladio. 



§ 260 THE ABLATIVE. 227 

Obs. 4. As in the example magno comitatu, the modal ablative is often 
used of military forces : exiguis copiis pugnare ; proficisci, venire, 
adesse omnibus copiis, expedito exercitu, triginta navibus longis. 
But cum is also used ; Caesar cum omnibus copiis Helvetios seqvi 
coepit (Caes. B. G. I. 26). (When there is no adjective or numeral, 
cum is always used.) 

Obs. 5. Here also we may notice the expressions, pace alicujus and 
bona venia alicujus dicere aliqvid, with his permission ; periculo 
alicujus aliqvid facere, at his risk; also, alicujus auspiciis, imperio, 
ductu rem gerere, under any one's command; simulatione (specie) 
timoris cedere, ivith assumed fear (Caes. B. C. II. 40) ; obsidum 
nomine, as hostages (Id. B. G. III. 2) ; classis nomine pecuniam 
civitatibus imperare, to impose a tax, under the pretence of employing 
it for the equipment of a fleet (Cic. pro Flacc. 12) ; alicujus verbis 
salutare aliqvem, in some one's name. On the other hand, cum 
(to) sometimes serves to denote an (attendant) consequence and effect : 
Accidit, ut Verres illo itinere veniret Lampsacum cum magna ca- 
lamitate et prope pernicie civitatis (Cic. Verr. I. 24) . 

§ 259. The ablative serves to denote the price for which a thing 
is bought, sold, made, or brought about (also with the verbs esse, 
stare, constare, licere, signifying to cost, to be on sale for), and to 
express the value at which a thing is estimated : — 

Eriphyle auro viri vitam vendidit. Praedium emitur (venit) 
centum millibus nummum. Caelius habitat triginta millibus 
(Cic. pro Cash 7). Apollonius mercede docebat. Victoria 
Poenis (dative) multo sangvine stetit. Tritici modius in Sicilia 
erat (aestimatus est) ternis sestertiis (Cic. Verr. III. 81) . Otium 
non gemmis venale. 

Obs. 1. If the price is only indefinitely given (as being high or low), 
the genitive of adjectives is sometimes used to express it (tanti, magni, 
&c). See § 294. 

Obs. 2. We find the expressions mutare, commutare, permutare 
aliqvid aliqvo, to exchange a thing (part with it for something else) : 
e.g. fidem et religionem pecunia mutare ; oves pretio mutare. 
Sometimes, however, they denote, to obtain a thing in exchange for 
another. We also have commutare aliqvid cum aliqvo, to acquire or 
part with a thing in the way of exchange (usually the latter) . 

§ 260. The ablative is put with various verbs, to define their 
meaning more accurately, by specifying in what, and in reference 
to what, the action or condition in question is manifested. 



228 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 260 

a. With those verbs which signify (intrans.) to have an abund- 
ance of any thing, or (trans.) to provide with any thing, to treat any 
one (any thing) in such a way, that he (it) obtains something, the 
ablative is employed, to show in what the abundance consists, and 
with what a thing is provided (ablativus copiae) ; e.g. : — ■ 

Abundare otio, affluere divitiis ; culter manat eruore, is drip- 
ping with blood ; refercire libros fabulis ; augere aliqvem scientia ; 
imbuere vas odore, animum honestis artibus; afficere aliqvem 
beneficio, honore, incommodo, poena, ignominia ; dignari aliqvem 
honore. 

Such verbs are abundo, redundo, affluo, scateo, and others in cer- 
tain significations : e.g. pluit lapidibus, it rains stones ; aures vocibus 
circumsonant, personant ; * compleo, expleo, impleo, refercio, 
stipo, instruo, orno, onero, cumulo, satio, augeo, remuneror, amcio, 
imbuo, conspergo, respergo, dignof (in an active signification), and 
some others. (Littora urbibus distincta, studded with cities.) 

Obs. In the poets and a few prose-writers, impleo and compleo 
have the genitive instead of the ablative ; e.g. implere hostem fugae 
et formidinis (Liv. X. 14). The same construction is occasionally 
found in the poets with one or two of the other verbs ; e.g. Satiata 
ferinae dextera caedis erat (Ov. Met. VII. 



b. The signification of some verbs may be conceived in two ways, 
so that they may either be constructed with the accusative and 
ablative in the way above noticed (to furnish one with a thing), or 
(signifying, to give a person a thing, to do a thing for and in refer- 
ence to him), with the accusative and dative : e.g. donare scribam 
suum axmlo aureo, to present one's secretary with a gold ring ; and 
donare adjutoribus suis multa, to make many presents to his coad- 
jutors. 

Such verbs are the following : dono, circumdo (urbem muris and 
muros urbi), adspergo (alicui labeculam, to affix, to spirt on him, 
as it were ; and aliqvem ignominia, to bespatter, to cover) ; induo 
(aliqvem veste, particularly in the passive, indutus veste, and alicui 
vestem 2 ) , inuro (alicui notam and aliqvem nota) , misceo (com- 
monly aqvam nectare, rubor candore mixtus, more rarely fletum 
cruori, misceo iram cum luctu) , and admisceo, with some few others 
compounded with ad and in (afflo, illino, imprimo, inscribo, intexo) ; 
also circumfundo, especially in the passive ; circumfundor luce and 
circumfunditur mihi lux. 

1 We find also clamor hostes circumsonat, and hence circumsonor clamore. 

2 Also induo vestem, to put on a dress; and poet, induor. See § 237, a. 



§ 262 THE ABLATIVE. 229 

Obs. The following is a bold poetical expression (in Yirg. Mn. VI. 
229) : Ter socios pura circumtulit unda, ivent round and sprinkled 
them with pure water. (Loca custodiis intermissa, Liv. VII. 36, 
i.q., ubi custodiae intermissae sunt.) 1 

§ 261. «. The ablative is put with those intransitive verbs which 
signify a deficiency in (a need of) something, and those transitive 
verbs which signify a deprivation of a thing, to denote that of which 
there is a deficiency or of which a person is deprived (ablative 
of want) ; as, with careo, egeo, indigeo, vaco, — orbo, privo, 
spolio, 2 fraudo, nudo {to strip of — ) ; e.g. : — 

Carere sensu, egere auxilio, vacare culpa, spoliare hominem 
fortunis, nudare turrim defensoribus. 

Obs. Egeo and indigeo (indigeo especially very often) also govern 
the genitive. 3 

b. In the same way we have invideo alicui aliqva re (laude sua), 
and interdico alicui aliqva re, forbid a person the use of a thing and 
access to it; e.g. aqva et igni, domo sua. (In the passive, imperson- 
ally ; prodigis (dative) solet bonis interdici.) 

Obs. 1. These verbs are less frequently constructed with an accusa- 
tive : invidere alicui laudem (but often invidere laudi alicujus), 
and interdicere feminis usum purpurae ; interdicta voluptas. 

Obs. 2. A double construction (as in § 259, b) is found with ezuo 
(aliqvem veste and vestem mini, or commonly only vestem) and 
abdico (me magistratu and abdico magistratum) . 

§ 262. Those verbs are also constructed with an ablative, which 
denote (being intransitive) to abstain from a thing, to renounce it ; 
or (transitive), to free, to keep away, to exclude from something ; 
as, — 

Abstineo, desisto, supersedeo, libero, solvo, exsolvo, levo, 
exonero, arceo, prohibeo, excludo: e.g. abstinere (or abstinere 
se) maledicto, scelere, liberare aliqvem suspicione, levare aliqvem 
onere, arcere tyrannum reditu, prohibere aliqvem cibo tectoqve ; 
prohibere Campaniam populationibus, to protect from -pillage. 

But the verbs which signify to abstain, to hinder, to exclude, are also used 
with the preposition ab: e.g. abstinere a vitiis; prohibere hostem a 



1 [Virgineum suffuderit ore cruorem (Virg. Georg. I. 430).] 

2 [Foliis viduantur orni (Hor. Od. II. 9, 8).] 

3 Vaco occurs also in the signification to be unoccupied, and then a dative may he sub- 
joined : e.g. pliilosophiae, have leisure to engage in it; hence, in later writers, vacare rei 
alicui, to apply to a thing, spend one's time about it. 



280 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 264 

pugna (cives a periculo) ; excludere aliqvem a republica. Where 
a person is specified, the preposition is always employed; arcere 
aliqvid a sese. 

Obs. 1. Ab is rarely put with libero, and never with levo, ex- 
oner o, absolvo, but only the ablative. (Liberare aliqvem ex incom- 
modis, out of.) 

Obs. 2. Intercludo has a double construction (viam, fugam alicui, 
to cut off; and aliqvem commeatu, a castris, shut out from). 

Obs. 3. Only the poets and some later prose- writers use absterreo, 
deterreo, and occasionally also some verbs compounded with dis, as 
dignosco, disto, distingvo, together with secerno, separo, with the 
ablative without ab ; e.g. vero distingvere falsum, turpi secernere 
honestum (Hor.). 

Obs. 4. The poets, in imitation of a Greek idiom, have put the geni- 
tive with some few such verbs ; e.g. abstineto irarum (Hor. Od. in. 
27, 69), desine qverelarum (Id. Od. II. 9, 17), solutus operum (Id.), 
freed from work. 

§ 263. Those verbs also, which denote to remove a person or 
thing (with violence) from or out of the place where it is, are some- 
times put with the ablative alone, but usually with a preposition of 
place (ab, ex, de) ; e.g. : — 

Movere aliqvem vestigio, pellere, expellere, depellere hostem 
loco (e loco, ab urbe), deturbare aliqvem moenibus (de moenibus) ; 
also, in a derived signification, deturbo, and especially dejicio (ali- 
qvem spe, praetura, but also de sententia). 

In the same way, the ablative without a preposition is often put with 
cedo, to retire from, quit ; decedo, excedo (cedere loco, vita, and 
e loco, de vita ; decedere provincia, Italia, and de provincia ; also, 
cedere alicui possessions hortorum, to give up possession to one) ; so 
also with abeo, used of resigning an office (abeo, magistratu, dicta- 
tura). 1 

Obs. The ablative alone is very rare with exeo, egredior, ejicio. 
On the ablative of the names of towns in answer to the question, Whence? 
see § 275. 

§ 264. With the verbs gaudeo, laetor, glorior, doleo, moereo, and 
with fido and confido, the ablative denotes that at which one rejoices, 
&c, or that on which a man relies; e.g. gaudere aliorum incom- 
modo, gloriari victoria sua, confidere natura loci. 



1 Excidere uxore (Ter. Andr. II. 5, 12). In the language of the courts, causa, for- 
mula cadere, manumittere (mauu mittere) servum. 



g 2C6 THE ABLATIVE. 231 

Obs. Fido and confido also have the dative (diffido, almost always). 
See § 244. Doleo has also the accusative (meum casum illi dolue- 
runt). See § 223, c. Glorior de and in aliqva re (in and of the 
possession of a thing). Nitor auctoritate alicujus, support one^s self 
on it (as a mean or instrument) ; also, divinatio nititur in conjectura. 
We should also notice delector aliqva re and aliqvo, to find pleasure in 
any thing or person) ; Laelio valde delector. 

§ 265. The verbs utor (abutor), fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, 

have the object in the ablative : — 

Uti victoria, frui otio, fungi munere, urbe potiri, vesci carne. 
(Utor aliqvo amico, to have him for a friend, — amico being in appo- 
sition; so, likewise, Me usurus es aeqvo, you tvill find me fair.) 

Obs. 1. The use of the ablative is to be explained by the fact, that 
these verbs had not originally a purely transitive signification. Potior is 
also put with the genitive, though rarely in prose ; but always in the 
phrase, potiri rerum, to make one's self master of sovereign power (to 
possess it). 

Obs. 2. In the older poets, and some few prose- writers, these verbs 
are occasionally found with the accusative. The gerundive is used like 
that of a common transitive verb which governs the accusative : e.g. in 
munere fungendo ; dare alicui vestem utendam ; spes potiun- 
dorum castrorum (Cass. B. G. III. 6 = castris potiendi). 

§ 266. The expression opus est stands as a predicate with the 
nominative, without altering opus ; e.g. : — 

Dux nobis (dative) et auctor opus est (Cic. ad Fam. II. 6), ive need 
a leader and guide; exempla permulta opus sunt (Id. de Invent. II. 
19). 

Or impersonally (there is need, one wants) with the ablative; 
e.g.: — 

Praesidio opus est. Auctoritate tua mihi opus est. Qvid (nihil) 
opus est verbis ? (In the negative form, or the interrogative with qvid, 
it is, almost without exception, impersonal.) In this last way, usus est 
is also employed with the same signification : Viginti usus est minis. 
(Si usus est, in case it should be necessary.) 

Obs. With opus est, that which is necessary may also be expressed 
by an infinitive, or an accusative with the infinitive ; e.g. Qvid opus est 
maturare ? or, Opus est te abire, opus est Hirtium conveniri, that 
Rirtius should be spoken to. Instead of this infinitive, the ablative of a 
participle, or substantive combined with a participle, is often employed : 
Opus est maturato (Liv. I. 58). Opus fuit Hirtio convento (Cic. ad 
Att. X. 4). Qvid opus est facto (qvid, — as if fieri were to fol- 
low). 



232 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 268 

§ 267. We should particularly notice the ablative with assvesco and 
assvefacio : e.g. assvetus labore 1 (more rarely with the dative, 
assvetus militiae) ; and with sto, to adhere to, abide by (stare con- 
ditionibus, promissis, stare suo judicio), 2 and with facio and fio 
when the question is, What is to be, or can be made, or become of a 
thing : Qvid facies hoc homine ? Qvid fiet nave ? (Qvid me fu- 
turum est ?) 

Obs. We find also with the dative, Qvid facies huic homini (with) ? 
see § 241, Obs. 5. (Qvid fiet de militibus? What is to be done with 
respect to the soldiers ?) 

§ 268. The ablative is put with various adjectives, which are 
allied in signification with the verbs cited in §§ 260, 261, 262, and 
264, to point out the object in reference to which the quality is 
given. Such adjectives are the following : — 

a. Those which denote an abundance of any thing (§ 260) : praeditus, 
onustus, plenus, fertilis, dives, also dignus and its opposite indignus ; 
e.g. onustus praeda, dives agris. 

Obs. 1. Plenus, fertilis, dives, are also put with the genitive, which 
is the usual construction of plenus, in the best writers : Gallia plena 
civium optimorum ; plenus rimarum ; ager fertilis frugum. So 
also the participles refertus and completus (but only with the geni- 
tive of personal appellations) : Gallia referta negotiatorum ; career 
completus mercatorum. 

Obs. 2. Conjunctus, combined with any thing (used of things) often 
has the ablative : Mendicitas aviditate conjuncta (conjungere men- 
dicitatem cum aviditate) ; but, Talis simulatio conjuncta est avi- 
ditati, borders on vanity. 

Obs. 3. The word rnacte is used alone, or with the imperative of 
sum (macte esto, este), in praises and congratulations, and takes the 
name of the thing on account of which a man is pronounced happy 
(generally virtute) in the ablative : Macte virtute diligentiaqVe esto. 
(Juberem te macte virtute esse, Liv. II. 12, would congratulate you 
on your bravery.) 3 

b. Those which denote a want of something, an exemption from some- 
thing (§§ 261 and 262) : inanis, nudus, orbus, vacuus, liber, im- 
munis, purus, alienus (strange, unsuitable), and also extorris ; e.g. 
orbus rebus omnibus, liber cura animus ; ducere aliqvid alienum 



1 [NTullo officio aut disciplina adsuefacti (Caes. B. G. IV. 1).] 

2 Also stare in eo, qvod sit judicatum. 

3 This word is generally, but without good reason, considered as the vocative of an adjective 
otherwise unused. 



§ 270 THE ABLATIVE. 233 

sua maj estate; extorris patria, regno. (On inops and pauper, see 
§ 209, e.) But these adjectives, with the exception of inanis, orbus, 
and extorris, are also used with the preposition ab ; oppidum vacuum 
defensoribus and a defensoribus. 

Obs. 1. Liber always has ab with the names of persons (locus liber 
ab arbitris), otherwise but seldom. Alienus has ab, especially in the 
signification disinclined (alienus a litteris), and always with the names 
of persons ; alienus a me. 

Obs. 2. Inanis and immunis have also the genitive : haec inanis- 
sima prudentiae reperta sunt ; alienus, less frequently. The rest of 
these adjectives are hardly found with the genitive, except in the poets : 
liber curarum, purus sceleris, vacuus operum; mons nudus arbo- 
ris (Ov.). Alienus, signifying inconvenient, unfavorable, has also the 
dative. 

c. Contentus, anxius, laetus, maestus, superbus, fretus. Natura 
parvo cultu contenta est. Fretus conscientia officii. 1 

d. Dignus and indignus : dignus beneficio, poena ; dignus Hercule 
labor ; indigna homine oratio. 

§ 269. Those participles which denote birth (natus, ortus, geni- 
tus, satus, editus), have the parentage or rank indicated in the 
ablative : — 

Mercurius Jove et Maj a natus erat ; natus nobiU genere ; eqves- 
tri loco ortus. With the parents, ex (de) is also used; Ex fratre 
et sorore nati erant. 

Obs. More remote ancestors are expressed by ortus ab : Belgae orti 
sunt a Germanis (Caes. B. G. II. 4). Cato Uticensis a Censorio 
ortus erat (Cic. pro Mur. 31). 

§ 270. The ablative sometimes denotes the measure of distance. 
See, under the accusative, § 234. With comparatives the ablative 
denotes how much a thing exceeds (is greater or less than) some- 
thing else in the quality mentioned : — 

Romani duobus millibus plures erant qvam Sabini ; uno digito 
plus habere, a finger more; multis partibus {times) major; dimidio 
minor ; alter o tanto longior, as long again ; qvinqvies tanto am- 
plius (Cic. Verr. III. 97). Honestas omni pondere gravior ha- 
benda est qvam reliqva omnia (Id. Off. III. 8), infinitely more weighty , 
more important. In the same way, the ablative is used, with ante and 
post, signifying how much earlier or later a thing takes place ; and with 

1 Fretus also occurs in Livy with a dative (like fido). 



234 LATIN GRAMMAR. §271 

infra, supra, and ultra: e.g. multis annis ante; novem annis post 
bellum Punicum. 

Obs. 1. The ablative of a neuter pronoun or adjective is accordingly 
used with comparatives, as well as with ante and post, aliter and secus, 
to denote the measure indefinitely : e.g. eo, so much ; qvo, as ; multo, 
tanto, qvanto, paullo, nihilo ; multo major, paullo post (rarely post 
paullo) ; qvo antiqvior, eo melior. (Hoc major gloria est, qvod 
solus vici, so much the greater, because, i.q. so much the greater as — .) 
But we also find adjectives in the accusative (adverbs in m), as mul- 
tum, aliqvantum, in the poets and later writers, instead of the ablative ; 
e.g. Aliqvantum iniqvior (Ter. Heaut. I. 2, 27). (With the super- 
lative, multo maxima pars, the greatest part by far.) 

Obs. 2. The ablative of those adjectives which denote number and 
quantity is also found with the verbs malo, praesto, supero, and those 
compounded with ante : Multo malo. Omnis sensus hominum 
multo antecellit sensibus bestiarum (Cic. ]ST. D. II. 57). But (ex- 
cept with malo) the accusative is also used: Multum (tantum) 
praestat, it is much {so much) better. 

Obs. 3. Sometimes ante, with the ablative, refers to the present; so 
long ago : e.g. Catilina paucis ante diebus erupit ex urbe (Cic. in 
Cat. III. 1) ; which is otherwise expressed by abhinc with the accusative 
(see § 235, Obs. 2), or by ante with the accusative (see the following 
observation). 

Obs. 4. The interval of time is also expressed by the accusative 
with ante and post, instead of the ablative ; so that decern diebus 
post (ante, — or, by altering the arrangement of the words, decern post 
diebus, rarely post decern diebus) is the same as post (ante) decern 
dies (decern post dies) : e.g. Eodem etiam Rhodia classis post 
dies paucos venit (Liv. XXXVII. 13). Aliqvot post menses 
homo occisus est (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 44). * Sometimes ante 
centum annos is used to denote a hundred years ago (= centum 
abhinc annos) ; and post tres dies, in three days. For the expression 
with an ordinal number, ante diem decimum qvam, and the use of the 
ablative only in the signification ago (his centum annis), see § 276, 
Obs. 5 and 6. 

§ 271. With comparatives the second member of the compari- 
son, which is otherwise subjoined with qvam (than), is often ex- 
pressed by the ablative; e.g. major Scipione = major qvam Scipio. 
For further particulars on this head see under the comparative, 
§ 304, &c. 



1 For decern diebus anteqvam (postqvam), earlier (later) than, we find also (less 
frequently) ante (post) decern dies qvam. 



§ 273 THE ABLATIVE. 235 

Obs. The ablative seems properly to denote that the higher degree is 
brought to light by the other, which is associated with it in the com- 
parison. 

§ 272. The ablative of a substantive combined with an adjective 
(participle, pronoun) is joined to a substantive either with the verb 
esse, or without any connecting word, to denote the quality and 
character of a person or thing (the ablative of quality, the descrip- 
tive ablative) : — 

Agesilaus statura fuit humili et corpore exiguo. Herodotus 
tanta est eloqventia, ut me magnopere delectet (Cic. de Or. II. 13). 
Summis ingeniis exqvisitaqve doctrina philosophi (Id. Fin. I. 1). 
C. Valerius, summa virtute et humanitate adolescens (Cses. B. G. 
I. 47). Erat inter Labienum et hostem difficili transitu flumen 
ripisqve praeruptis (Id. B. G. VI. 7). Apollonius affirmabat 
servuni se illo nomine habere neminem (Cic. Verr. V. 7). (Fhilo- 
dami filia summa integritate pudicitiaqve existimabatur, Cic. 
Verr. I. 25, = esse existim.) 

Obs. 1. For the distinction between the ablative of quality and the 
genitive of quality, see § 287, Obs. 2. 

Obs. 2. In the same way, we have trulla aureo manubrio, a cup 
with a golden handle (of a constituent part of the vessel itself) ; but also 
cum aureo manubrio. 1 Sometimes the ablative of quality is put with 
sum, to denote a situation, where we otherwise find in : Esse magna 
gloria. Nunqvam pari periculo Carthago fuerat (Corn. Hannib. 2). 
Esse meliore condicione ; eodem statu esse, manere ; and in 
eodem statu. 

Obs. 3. Instead of the ablative, a genitive is sometimes used, when ref- 
erence is made to external form and magnitude : e.g. clavi ferrei digiti 
pollicis crassitudine (Cses. B. G. III. 13), of the thickness of one's 
thumb. Uri sunt specie et figura et colore tauri (Id. B. G. VI. 28). 

§ 273. A local relation (the remaining or happening in a place, 
motion from a place) is commonly expressed by prepositions (in — 
ab, ex, de) ; in some cases, however, the preposition is left out and 
the ablative used alone. 

a. The remaining or happening in a place is denoted by the abla- 
tive alone, when the names of towns and smaller islands (which may be 
regarded as towns) are spoken of, if the names belong to the third 
declension, or are of the plural number : Babylone habitare ; Athenis 
litteris operam dare. 2 

1 [Nuntiabant agnum cum duobus capitibus natum, et Sinuessae porcum 
humane- capite (Liv. XXXII. 9).] 

2 Carthagini, Tiburi, see § 42, d. 



236 LATIN GRAMMAR. §273 

If, on the other hand, the name of the town (or island) is of the 
singular number and of the first or second declension, the genitive is 
employed. See § 296. 

Ojbs. If urbs or oppidum precedes, in is inserted; in oppido 
Hispali. So also, in general, when there is a word in apposition to the 
name ; Cives Romanos Neapoli, in celeberrimo oppido, saepe cum 
mitella vidimus (Cic. pro. Rab. Post. 10). 

b. In like manner the preposition in is often omitted with the word 
locus, when accompanied by a pronoun or adjective : hoc loco ; aeqvo 
loco pugnare ; castra opportunis locis posita erant ; (but also in 
altis locis, especially in speaking of what happens in all high places). 
The following also stand without a preposition : ruri (more rarely, 
rure) , in the country ; dextra, laeva, on the right, on the left ; terra 
mariqve, by land and sea (also mari res magnas gerere ; but in mari, 
on the sea ; in terra pedem ponere) ; and sometimes medio, in the 
middle; medio aedium, in the middle of the house; medio coeli 
terraeqve. (Usually in mediis aedibus, medius inter coelum ter- 
ramqve.) (See § 300, b, and § 311.) 

Obs. 1. When locus has a derived signification, in is almost always 
omitted; secundo loco aliqvem numerare; meliore loco res 
nostrae sunt. Yet we find both parentis loco ducere (habere) 
aliqvem, filii loco esse, and in parentis, in filii loco. 1 Loco and in 
loco (suo loco) denote in the right place (in one's own place) . In is 
also sometimes omitted with parte, partibus, signifying side. Reliqvis 
oppidi partibus sic est pugnatum, ut aeqvo loco discederetur 
(Caes. B. C. III. 112). With libro, in is usually omitted, when the 
contents of the whole book are referred to ; De amicitia alio libro 
dictum est (Cic. Off. II. 9). Animo stands without a preposition 
when emotions of the mind are spoken of; commoveri, angi animo, vol- 
vere aliqvid animo. 

Obs. 2. The poets often use other words also in the ablative, without 
a preposition, to express remaining in a place, when there is no fear of 
its beino; confounded with other significations of the ablative : Lucis 
habitamus opacis (Virg. iEn. VI. 673). Custodia vestibulo sedet 
(Id. ib. VI. 575). Silvisqve agrisqve viisqve corpora foeda 
jacent (Ov. Met. VII. 547). 

c. The ablative is also usually used without a preposition, when the 
adjective totus is subjoined, to denote that something is pervaded : e.g. 
Urbe tota gemitus fit, through the whole city. Caesar nuntios tota 
civitate Aeduorum dimittit (Ca3S. B. G. VII. 38). Menippus, 
tota Asia illis temporibus disertissimus (Cic. Brut. 91), in all Asia. 

1 Parentis numero esse, haberi; butinnumero oratorum esse (haberi, 

duci), to be reckoned amongst the orators. 



§ 275 THE ABLATIVE. 2^7 

if one were to search through all Asia. Qvis toto mari locus tutus 
fxiit? (Id. pro Leg. Man. 11), ichat place in the whole sea? 

Obs. In is nevertheless also used: e.g. Tanti terrae motus in 
Gallia compluribusqve insuHs totaqve in Italia facti sunt (Cic. de 
Div. I. 35). Nego in tota Sicilia ullum argenteum vas fuisse, 
qvod Verres non conqvisierit (Id. in Terr. IV. 1). 

§ 274. The ablative is used without a preposition to signify the 
path or way by which, or direction in which, a movement takes place : 

Via Nomentana (via breviore) proficisci ; porta Collina urbem 
intrare ; recta linea deorsum ferri ; Pado frumentum subvehere, 

on the Po, up the Po. 

§ 275. A motion from a place is expressed without a preposition 
by the ablative of the names of towns and smaller islands, and the 
words domo, from home ; rare, from the country ; and sometimes 
humo, from the ground: — 

Roma proficisci, discedere Athenis, Delo Rhodum navigare; 
frumentum Rhodo advehere ; domo auxilium mittere ; rure ad- 
venire ; oculos tollere humo (also, ab humo) . 

Obs. 1. Ab is, however, sometimes (by Livy usually) used with the 
names of towns, and always when a removal from the neighborhood of 
a town is spoken of; e.g. Caesar a Gergovia discessit (Cses. B. G. 
VII. 59), from Gergovia, which he had been besieging. The preposition 
is likewise used when oppidum or urbs precedes the name : Expellitur 
ex oppido Gergovia (Id. ib. VII. 4) . (Genus Tusculo, ex clar- 
issimo municipio, profectum, Cic. pro Font. 14.) 

Obs. 2. The ablative of the names of towns (together with domo) is 
used without a preposition to denote the place from which a letter is 
written (e.g. Roma a. d. iv. Idus Octobres), and with abesse, to be 
absent ; e.g. abesse Roma (but tria millia passuum a Roma abesse, 
of the distance). 

Obs. 3. To denote a person's home, we sometimes find such expres- 
sions as Gn. Magius Cremona (Caes. B. C. I. 24), Gn. Magius of 
Cremona; more usually with an adjective: Gn. Magius Cremonensis. 
(In Livy we also find Turnus Herdonius ab Aricia, I. 50.) In the 
same way is used the ablative of the names of the Roman tribes ; Ser- 
vius Sulpicius Lemonia, of the Lemonian tribe. 

Obs. 4. The poets use also the ablatives of other words to indicate 
the place from which a motion proceeds : e.g. descendere caelo 
(Virg.) ; labi eqvo (Hor.). (Abesse virtute Messalae, to fall short 
of Hor.) Of the ablative with certain verbs, in the signification out of 
away from, see § 263. 



238 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 276 

§ 276. The ablative of words which denote a space of time is 
used both to denote the time at which (when) sl thing happens, and 
the time within which, in the course of which, it happens : — 

a. Tertio anno urbs capta est. Hora sexta (vigilia tertia) 
Caesar profectus est. Res patrum memoria (nostra aetate) gestae. 
Pyrrhi temporibus jam Apollo versus facere desierat (Cic. de Div. 
II. 56) . Qva nocte natus Alexander est, eadem Dianae Ephesiae 
templum deflagravit (Id. N. D. II. 27). Initio aestatis consul in 
Graeciam trajecit. So also without an adjective (or genitive) : hieme 
(in the winter) , aestate, die, nocte, luce (in broad day) . 

b. Roscius Romam multis annis non venit (Cic. Rose. Am. 27). 
Nemo his viginti annis reipublicae fuit hostis, qvi non bellum 
eodem tempore mini qvoqve indixerit (Id. Phil. II. 1). Saturni 
stella triginta fere annis cursum suum conficit (Cic. N. D. II. 
20). Agamemnon vix decern annis urbem unam cepit (Corn. 
Eparn. 5). 

Obs. 1. To express the time when a thing happens, in is added, in some 
particular phrases. To denote a thing which is always true, we find the 
expressions, in omni aetate, in omni aeternitate (through all eter- 
nity) , in omni puncto temporis (at every moment) . In tempore, and 
simply tempore, signifies at the right (suitable) time. 1 In tali tem- 
pore (Sail. Cat. 48), under such circumstances ; auxilio alicui esse in 
gravissimis ejus temporibus. 

Obs. 2. Some words, too, which do not, in themselves, denote time, 
but an event, are used, in the ablative, without a preposition, in order to 
intimate the time when a thing takes place, particularly adventu and 
discessu with a genitive : Adventu Caesaris in Galliam Moritas- 
gus regnum obtinebat (Cses. B. G. Y. 54), at the time of Ccesar's 
arrival; with some others (ortu, occasu solis), comitiis, ludis, gla- 
diatoribus, at the time of (during) the comitia, &c. ; sometimes, also, 
pace, in time of peace ; bello, tumultu, in time of war ; but in bello, 
in the war. With the addition of an adjective : Praelio Senensi 
consul ludos vovit, and in praelio Senensi ; bello Punico secundo 
(bello Antiochi), at the time of the second Punic war, and in bello 
Alexandrino, in the Alexandrian ivar. 2 To express the different times 
of life, in is inserted: e.g. in pueritia; -but it maybe omitted, when 
the ablative is qualified by an adjective : prima, extrema pueritia. 
We have initio, principio, in the beginning, and in initio. 3 



1 Ad tempus, ad diem, at the right (appointed) time. 

2 In later writers also : dedicatione templi Veneris Genetricis, at the consecra- 
tion, Plin. Maj. ; publico epulo, at a public entertainment, Svet., &c. 

3 Principio also signifies firstly. 



§276 THE ABLATIVE. 239 

Obs. 3. To express the time within which a thing takes place, in is 
sometimes inserted: Sulla sollertissimus omnium in paucis tem- 
pestatibus factus est (Sail. Jug. 96) ; particularly when a numeral is 
employed to show how often a thing happens, or how much is done in a 
certain time : e.g. bis in die (a day) saturum fieri; ter in anno nun- 
tium audire. Lucilius in hora saepe ducentos versus dictabat 
(Hor. Sat. I. 4, 9). (But also septies die, seven times a day.) 

Obs. 4. In the same way, in is often inserted to intimate within what 
time, reckoned from a certain point, a thing happens : Decrevit sena- 
tus, ut legati Jugurthae in diebus proximis decern Italia decede- 
rent (Sail. Jug. 28) ; but also diebus decern (Id. ib. 38), qvatriduo 
eurn exspecto (in four days). Paucis diebus and in paucis die- 
bus, in the course of a few days, a few days afterwards, or in a 
few days : Paucis diebus Jugurtha legatos Romam mittit (Sail. 
Jug. 13) ; paucis diebus ad te veniam. Here, too, we should 
notice the expression in connection with a relative clause : paucis 

(in paucis) diebus (annis), qvibus , a few days after, ; 

e.g. Diebus circiter zv, qvibus in hiberna ventum est, de- 
fectio orta est (Cses. B. G. V. 26). In paucis diebus, qvibus 
haec acta sunt, Chrysis moritur (Ter. And. I. 1, 77). Sex. Roscii 
mors qvatriduo, qvo is occisus est, Chrysogono nuntiatur (Cic. 
Rose. Am. 37), properly, in the course of the same four days, during 
which his assassination took place. 1 

Obs. 5. We must particularly remark the use of the ablative with hie 
or ille to give the period of time, measured from the present, or from 
some given point in the past, within which a thing occurs : His annis 
qvadringentis Romae rex fuit (Cic. R. P. I. 37), it is not more than 
four hundred years since there was a king at Rome, —four hundred years 
ago, or less. Ante hos qvadringentos annos and abhinc annos 
qvadringentos is a more definite statement. See § 270, Obs. 4. 
Respondit, se paucis illis diebus argentum misisse Lilybaeum 
(Id. Verr. IV. 18). Hanc urbem hoc biennio evertes (Id. Somn. 
Scip. 2), before two years are past ; more definitely, intra biennium. 2 

Obs. 6. For an ablative of time with an ordinal numeral, followed by 
the adverb ante or post (e.g. die decimo post or decimo post die), 
we find also the preposition ante or post, with the accusative : post diem 
decimum (decimum post diem), as in § 270, Obs. 4. (Post tertium 
diem moriendum mini est, Cic. Div. I. 25 = tribus his diebus, post 



1 [Oppidum paucis diebus, qvibus eo ventum est, expugnatum (Caes. B. G. 
III. 13). Diebus x, qvibus materia coepta erat eomportari (Id. ibid. IV. 18).] 

2 Intra centum annos, in less than a hundred years; inter centum annos, in 
the course of a hundred years, in a period of a hundred years; e.g. Inter tot annos unus 

innocens imperator inventus est (= tot annis). 



240 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 277 

tres dies.) For dtoimo die anteqvam, or postqvam (e.g. undecimo 
die postqvam a te discesseram, Cic. ad Att. XII. 1), we find also 
ante, post decimum diem, qvam ; e.g. Post diem qvintum, qvam 
iterum barbari male pugnaverant, legati a Boccho veniunt (Sail. 
Jug. 102) . We even find (though this is a rare instance) post sextum 
cladis annum (Tac. Ann. I. 62), for sexto anno post cladem. 
(Ante qvintum mensem divortii, Svet. Claud. 27.) * 

Obs. 7. Concerning the use of the ablative instead of the accusative 
in expressing the duration of an action, see § 235, Obs. 3. 

§ 277 A substantive (or substantive pronoun) having an adjec- 
tive or participle agreeing with it, or having another substantive in 
apposition, by which it is described as being in a certain state (rege 
vivo, te vivo, rege mortuo, rege duce), is put in the ablative, and 
joined to a proposition, to show that that which is asserted in the pro- 
position takes place during the continuance of that which is expressed 
by the ablatives. This is called the ablative absolute, or ablative of 
consequence (also, duo ablativi). It denotes either simply a par- 
ticular time (e.g. factum est rege vivo, while the king lived) ; or 
the way in which the action is performed, or the relation to it of 
some person or thing (e.g. bellum gestum est rege duce, so that 
the king was commander, i.q. under the king's command). The 
force of this construction, which expresses occasion, contrast, and 
the like, is given in English by a great variety of phrases : — 

Augustus natus est Cicerone et Antonio consulibus (in the con- 
sidate of Cicero and Antony) ; iisdem consulibus Catilinae conjuratio 
erupit (under the same consids) , Pythagoras Tarqvinio Superbo re- 
gnante in Italiam venit (in the reign of Tarquin). Regibus ejectis 
consules creari coepti sunt (after the expulsion of the kings) . An- 
tonius Caesare ignaro magister eqvitum constitutus est (ivithout 
Ccesar's knowledge). Hoc factum est me invito. Nihil de hac re 
agi potest salvis legibus (Cic. ad Fam. I. 2), without violating the 
laws. Lex Cassia lata est Scipione auctore (Id. Legg. III. 16), at 
the instigation, or by the advice of Scipio. Qvo auctore tantam rem 
aggressus es? Nonne simillimis formis saepe dispares mores 
sunt et moribus simillimis figura dissimilis est? (Id. N. D. I. 35), 
do we not often find different characters under the same exterior ? (Aestu 
magno ducere agmen, Id. Tusc. II. 15, in very hot weather. Tabulas 



1 For die (anno) decimo postqvam, we find (without the preposition) die (anno) 
decimo qvam : e.g. Anno trecentesimo altero, qvam condita Roma est, ite- 
rum mutatur forma civitatis (Liv. III. 33). (Postridie qvam, postero die 
qvam.) So likewise it is said : Intra qvintum, qvam affuerat, diem (Svet. Jul. 35), 
before the fifth day after. 



§ 278 THE ABLATIVE. 241 

in foro, summa hominum freqventia, exscribo, Id. Verr. II. 77, in 
the midst of a great crowd. Compare § 257.) 

A negative may also be attached to the adjective or participle ; factum 
hoc est me non invito. 

Obs. 1. In this way, the contents of a whole proposition, with its 
accessorv ideas, may, by means of participles, be expressed as a circum- 
stance qualifying another proposition ; e.g. hostibus post acre prce- 
lium a littore submotis, Caesar castra posuit. See §§ 428 and 429. 

Obs. 2. A simple demonstrative pronoun may sometimes stand in place 
of the adjective : Qvid hoc populo obtineri potest? (Cic Legg. III. 
16,) what measure can be carried, so long as the people is such as it now 
is, or with the present peopled l His moribus, in the present condition of 
the public morals. 

Obs. 3. In a few particular expressions, an external circumstance is 
intimated still more briefly by the ablative of a single word ; e.g. se- 
reno (Liv. XXXVII. 3), with a fair shj ; austro (Cic.Div. II. 27), 
in a south wind, when the wind is southerly. 

§ 278. «. Sometimes, when it can be done without obscuring the 
sense, a single predicate is qualified by several ablatives, which all 
differ from each other, so far as the application of the foregoing 
rules are concerned : — 

Et legibus et institutis (§ 256) vacat senectus muneribus iis 
(§ 261) qvae non possunt sine viribus sustineri (Cic. Cat. M. 11). 
Catilina scelerum exercitatione (§ 254) assvefactus erat frigore 
et fame et siti perferendis (§ 267). (Id. in Cat. II. 5.) Menippus 
meo judicio (§ 256, Obs. 3) tota Asia (§ 273, c) illis temporibus 
(§ 276) disertissimus erat (Cic. Brut. 91). 

b. An ablative, which denotes reference (§ 253), or the means 
(§ 254), as well as an ablative of place (§§ 273, a, 274, 275), or of 
time (§ 276), is sometimes joined immediately to a verbal substan- 
tive, and not to the predicate of the proposition; e.g. : — 

Harum ipsarum rerum reapse, non oratione, perfectio (Cic. Rep. 
I. 2) ; exercitus nostri interitus ferro, fame, frigore, pestilentia (Id. 
in Pis. 17) ; mansio Formiis (Id. ad Att. IX. 5) ; reditus Narbone 
(Id. Phil. II. 30) ; ilia universorum civium Romanorum per tot 
urbes uno puncto temporis misera crudelisqve caedes (Id. pro 
Flacc. 25). (Bello civili victor.) This, however, is rare. (Com- 
pare § 298.) 

1 [Itaqve ego ilium exercitum, et Gallicanis legionibus, et hoc delectu, 
qvem in agro Piceno et Gallieo Q. Metellus habuit, et his copiis, qvae a 
nobis qvotidie comparantur, magno opere contenmo (Cic. in Cat. II. 3).] 

16 



242 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 280 



CHAPTER V. 

THE GENITIVE. 

§ 279. The genitive of a word denotes that another stands with 
it in some connected relation, and is in this way defined by it. The 
genitive serves chiefly to show the relation of the substantive so 
used to some other substantive (or word put substantively), so 
that both substantives in combination express one idea ; it is, how- 
ever, also combined with some adjectives and verbs. 

Obs. The connection denoted by the genitive may be divided princi- 
pally into three kinds. It is either an immediate one between two sub- 
stantive ideas, of which one is conceived of as belonging to the other, 
and denned by it (patria hominis, patria nostra), the possessive 
or subjective genitive; or it directs some energy or quality or effort 
towards some object (studium gloriae, studiosus gloriae, oblivisci 
rei, studium nostri), the objective genitive ; or it represents a thing as 
subordinate to something else as its whole (pars rei, pars nostrum) , 
the genitive of the whole, the partitive genitive. To these leading classes, 
are to be subjoined some more special applications, in some of which the 
primary notion cannot be ascertained with certainty. 

§ 280. The genitive depending on a substantive is used to 
express the name of a person or thing to which something be- 
longs (the possessive or subjective genitive) : — 

As, for instance, by relationship, filius Ciceronis ; by possession, horti 
Caesaris ; by origin, tabula Apellis (a picture by Apelles) ; by mutual 
relation and position, hostis Romanorum (an enemy of the Romans) ; 
or as an action, fuga Pompeji ; quality, fortitudo Leonidae ; contents, 
and appurtenance, vasa abaci (the vessels belonging to the sideboard) ; 
servus Titii, dominus Stichi ; Cupido Praxitelis (the Cupid — a 
statue — of Praxiteles) ; libri Ciceronis (the books of Cicero, either as 
author or possessor) ; consvetudo nostri temporis ; hominum genus 
(the race of men, the race which they constitute) ; poena sceleris ; laus 
recte factorum; frumentum triginta dierum (corn for thirty days, as 
much as thirty days require) ; animus patris (the disposition of the 
father, or a father, i.q. a fatherly disposition) ; comitia consulum 
(the assembly for the election of consuls, i.q. that in which they are 
elected). 



§ 280 THE GENITIVE. 243 

Obs. 1. The relation which in Latin is denoted by the genitive is 
usually expressed in English by a preposition (especially of) , or by a 
substantive and adjective : e.g. ordo mercatorum, the mercantile class ; 
bellum servorum, the war ivith the slaves (also, bellum servile). 

Obs. 2. In order to avoid repetition, the substantive which governs 
the genitive may be omitted, if it can, without ambiguity, be supplied 
from the context : Meo judicio stare malo qvam omnium reliqvorum 
(Cic. ad Att. XII. 21). Perspicuum est, benevolentiae vim esse 
magnam, metus imbecillam (Id. Off. II. 8). Qvis potest sine 
maxima contumelia conferre vitam Trebonii cum Dolabellae? 
(Id. Phil. XI. 4.) Flebat pater de filii morte, de patris filius (Id. 
Yerr. I. 30) . (On the other hand : Nulla est celeritas, qvae possit 
cum animi celeritate contendere, Id. Tusc. I. 19). A pronoun (hie 
or ille), answering to the word understood, is rarely inserted before the 
genitive, and only when direct reference is made to something already 
known, or mentioned shortly before ; Nullam enim virtus aliam mer- 
cedem laborum periculorumqve desiderat praeter hanc laudis et 
gloriae (Cic. pro Arch. 11), except this, of which I have already 
spoken. Expressions like the following : Videtisne captivorum ora- 
tionem cum perfugis convenire (Cses. B. C. II. 39), instead of cum 
perfugarum (sc. oratione) ; or, Ingenia nostrorum hominum mul- 
tum ceteris hominibus praestiterunt (Cic. de Or. I. 4), instead of 
ceterorum hominum ingeniis, result from a want of precision in the 
thought, the person or thing itself being put in the place of that which 
belongs to it. 

Obs. 3. The word aedes or templum is often omitted (elliptically), 
after the preposition ad (sometimes after ab), before the genitive of the 
name of the divinity : Ventum erat ad Vestae. Pugnatum est ad 
Spei. 

Obs. 4. A man's wife or son or daughter is, in a few instances, briefly 
expressed by the genitive alone: Verania Pisonis (Plin. Ep. II; 20), 
Piso^s Verania, i.q. Piso^s wife Verania ; Hasdrubal Gisgonis (Liv. 
XXV. 37), Gisgo^s Hasdrubal, i.q. Hasdrubal, the son of Gisgo, to dis- 
tinguish him from another famous Hasdrubal, the son of Hamilcar. In 
the case of sons, this way of expression is chiefly used with names which 
are not Roman. (So likewise, Flaccus Claudii, Flaccus, the slave, or 
freedman of Claudius.) 

Obs. 5. Since a thing may belong to a person in various ways, it fol- 
lows that one and the same possessive genitive, governed by the same 
word, may admit of two meanings ; e.g. libri Ciceronis. So also, inju- 
riae praetoris, the unjust acts of the proctor (active) ; and injuriae 
civium, the wrongs suffered by the citizens (passive). 



244 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 282 

Obs. 6. We may notice especially the use of the indeclinable substan- 
tive instar, which, in common language, is used only in combination with 
a genitive, to signify as much as, the same (in compass, weight, impor- 
tance) : as, Plato mini est instar omnium (Cic. Brut. 51), as good as 
all together ; haec navis urbis instar inter ceteras habere videba- 
tur (Id. Yerr. V. M), to be, as it were, a city ; montis instar eqvus 
(Virg. iEn. II. 15, apposition), a horse like a mountain. 

Obs. 7. The possessive genitive may also be governed by an adjective 
used substantively, or by a neuter pronoun; Omnia erant Metelli 
ejusmodi (Cic. Yerr. II. 26), every thing from Metellus, that is, all his 
measures. (See also, § 485, c, Obs.) 

§ 281. Instead of being joined immediately to the governing 
substantive, a possessive genitive may be combined with it by 
means of the verb sum or fio, so as to declare whose a thing is, or 
whose it becomes, or to whom it belongs : — 

Domus est patris. Ego totus Pompeji sum (Cic. ad Fam. II. 
13). Hie versus Plauti non est (Id. ibid. IX. 16), is not by Plautus. 
Omnia, qvae mulieris fuerunt, viri fiunt (Id. Top. 4). Thebae 
populi Romani belli jure factae sunt (Liv. XXIII. 13) . 

In the same way, facio expresses whose property a thing is made ; 
puto, habeo, existimo, whose it is supposed to be ; e.g. Neqve glo- 
riam meam, laborem illorum faciam (Sail. Jug. 85), I will not take the 
glory to myself, and leave the toil to them. 

Obs. From this use of sum with the genitive, signifying to be some 
one^, to belong to some one, is derived the expression, aliqvid est mei 
judicii, is for me to decide ; esse dicionis Carthaginiensium, to be under 
the jurisdiction of the Carthaginians (Liv. XXX. 9) , and facere ali- 
qvid suae dicionis, potestatis, arbitrii, to bring a thing under one's own 
power, make it dependent on one's own disposal ; Romani imperio aucti, 
Albani dicionis alienae facti erant (Liv. I. 25) . Marcellus id nee 
juris nee potestatis suae esse dixit (Id. XXY. 7), that he had neither 
the right nor the power. 

§ 282. The genitive with the verb sum also denotes to whom or 
what a thing suitably and appropriately belongs : — 

Non hujus temporis ista oratio est (is not suited to). Petu- 
lantia magis est adolescentium qvam senum (is more appropri- 
ate). 

In this way especially a genitive (or a possessive pronoun) is 
often, by the help of the verb sum, combined with an infinitive for 
the subject, to express what is any one's affair (task, duty, custom, 
&c), what is the nature (characteristic sign) of a thing: — 



§283 THE GENITIVE. « 245 

Cu jus vis hominis est errare, nullius, nisi insipientis in err ore 
perseverare (Cic. Phil. XII. 2), to err is the lot of every man, may hap- 
pen to every man. Est boni judicis parvis ex rebus conjecturam 
facere. Secundas res immoderate ferre levitatis est (betrays weak- 
ness of character') . Nihil est tarn angusti animi tamqve parvi qvam 
amare divitias (Cic. Off. I. 20) . (Tempori cedere semper sapien- 
tis habitum est, Cic. ad Fam. IY. 9, lias always been considered fitting 
for a wise man.) 

Obs. 1. The same is more definitely expressed thus : judicis officium 
(munus) est; sapientis est proprium, &c. Humanum est errare. 
Stulti est, it is peculiar to the fool, a distinguishing mark of the fool; 
stultum est, it is foolish. With adjectives of one termination, the first 
method of expression is almost always employed ; Est prudentis sus- 
tinere impetum benevolentiae (Cic. Lsel. 17). We should hardly 
say, Est prudens sust. imp. ben. 

Obs. 2. The following construction is worthy of notice : Negavit 
moris esse Graecorum, ut in convivio virorum mulieres accumbe- 
rent (Cic. Yerr. I. 26), that it was according to the Greek custom. 

§ 283. A genitive is used with substantives of transitive signifi- 
cation to express the object of the transitive force (the objective 
genitive). Such substantives are those which are derived from 
transitive verbs, and express the notion of the verb ; and others, 
which denote an affection, aversion, knowledge, ignorance, or a 
power, capacity, or influence ; e.g. : — 

Indagatio veri, accusatio sceleratorum, amor Dei (love to God, 
amare Deum), odium hominum (misanthropy), timor hostium (fear 
entertained of the enemy), spes salutis, cura rerum alienarum, oblivio 
officii (obliviscor officii) ; taedium vitae (taedet vitae, § 292), 
fuga laboris, studium severitatis, studium Pompejanarum par- 
tium, cupiditas gloriae, fames auri ; scientia juris, peritia belli, 
ignoratio veri; potestas (copia) rei alicujus (facere alicui potesta- 
tem dicendi) ; signum erumpendi (for breaking out) ; occasio et 
locus pugnae (pugnandi) ; materia jocorum ; libertas dicendi; 
praecepta vivendi (rules for life) . 

Obs. 1. Amor Dei, timor hostium, may also signify (as the posses- 
sive genitive, according to § 280) God^s love (to others), fear enter- 
tained by the enemy. The context shows which signification is to be 
adopted. 

Obs. 2. With those words which denote a feeling towards anyone, the 
prepositions, in, erga, and adversus, are also used ; e.g. odium, mu- 
lierum, and odium in hominum universum genus (Cic. Tusc. IV. 
11). Meum erga te studium. Adhibenda est reverentia qvae- 



246 ' LATIN GRAMMAR. § 284 

dam adversus homines, et optimi cujusqve et reliqvorum (Cic. 
Off. I. 28) . The preposition is especially to be used when the govern- 
ing word itself stands in the genitive ; Si qvid amoris erga me in te 
residet (Id. ad Fam. V. 5). 

Obs. 3. This genitive, therefore, with verbal substantives, has the 
same meaning as the accusative with the verb (or the genitive with the 
verbs adduced below, § 291, and § 292 ; memoria beneficiorum, tae- 
dium vitae). Yet verbal substantives, whose verbs do not govern the 
accusative, are sometimes put with the genitive, to indicate a more remote 
reference to something to which the action is directed, and in which 
it shows itself, and which, with the verbal substantive, forms a com- 
pound idea : e.g. aditus laudis (an opportunity for glory) ; incita- 
mentum periculorum (incitare aliqvem ad pericula) ; amicitia est 
omnium divinarum humanarumqve rerum cum benevolentia et 
caritate consensio (Cic. Lsel. 6), agreement in ; vacatio militiae ; fidu- 
cia virium ; victoria belli civilis ; contentio honorum (Cic. Off. I. 
25), the struggle for office ; magnam virtutis opinionem habere (Caes. 
B. G. VII. 59), to have the reputation of great bravery. In the same 
way, we find, with the names of persons, dux belli, the leader in the 
war), victor trium bellorum (Liv. VI. 4), magister officii. (The 
objective genitive with a substantive corresponds but very rarely with 
the dative governed by a verb, — as, obseqvium corporis (Cic. Leg. 
I. 23) , — except in the instance of studium) . 

Obs. 4. An objective genitive may sometimes be connected with 
the governing substantive by the verb sum ; e.g. Ars est earum rerum, 
qvae sciuntur (Cic. Or. II. 7), an art applies to those things that are 
Jmown. 

§ 284. The genitive is put with words which denote a part of a 
thing, in order to designate the whole, which is divided (the parti- 
tive genitive). The partitive words may be substantives, numerals 
(cardinal and ordinal), and adjectives of number (multi, pauci, &c), 
pronouns, adjectives of the superlative degree (or the comparative 
for the superlative), and neuter adjectives used substantively: — 

Magna pars militum; duo genera civium (two classes of citi- 
zens) ; multi militum (many of the soldiers ; multi milites, many sol- 
diers) ; tertius regum Romanorum ; alter accusatorum ; nemo 
mortalium (nemo mortalis, no mortal) ; solus omnium ; illi Grae- 
corum, qvi (those of the Greeks, who)] fortissimus Graecorum; 
plerumqve Europae (the greater part of Europe) . Ager Appulus, 
qvod ejus publicum populi Romani erat, divisus est (Liv. XXXI. 
4), so much of it as was state property : 



§ 284 THE GENITIVE. 247 

Obs. 1. Instead of the genitive, the prepositions ex, de, and, in cer- 
tain combinations, in or inter, among, are also used : e.g. melior ex 
duobus, alter de duobus, aliqvis de heredibus, unus e tribus (one 
of three) ; Thales sapientissimus in septem fuit (Cic. Legg. II. 11) ; 
inter omnes unus excellit (Id. Or. 2). But a partitive substantive 
is not readily combined by a preposition with another substantive (not 
pars ex exercitu). Concerning the use of a distributive apposition 
(consules alter — alter), instead of a proper division (consulum alter 
— alter), see §217, Obs. 1. 

Obs. 2. A partitive genitive may also be governed by a substantive, 
which does not, in itself, signify a part, if several persons or things are 
designated by one name, and then mentioned severally; Venio ad 
ipsas provincias, qvarum (of wliicli) Macedonia, qvae erat antea 
munita et pacata, graviter a barbaris vexatur (Cic. Prov. Cons. 2). 
On the other hand, a partitive genitive is rarely combined with the sub- 
ject of a proposition by sum without a governing noun, as in the 
following instances : Ariminenses erant duodecim coloniarum 
(Cic. pro Csec. 35), were of, belonged to, the twelve colonies. Fies 
nobilium tu qvoqve fontium (Hor. Od. III. 13, 13), one of the fa- 
mous fountains. 

Obs. 3. The word uterqve is always used with the genitive of pro- 
nouns (uterqve eorum, both of them ; uterqve nostrum, both of us) ; 
with substantives, on the contrary, it is generally put as an adjective : 
uterqve frater (rarely, uterqve legatorum, Veil. II. 50) . 

Obs. 4. The adverb partim is used as a partitive adjective in the 
nominative and accusative with -the genitive or a preposition : Partim 
eorum ficta aperte, partim effutita temere sunt (Cic. Div. II. 55). 
Partim e nobis timidi sunt, partim a republica aversi (Cic. Phil. 
VIII. 11). (The gender is regulated by the leading idea.) 

Obs. 5. The use of a neuter adjective, in the singular or plural, as 
a substantive with the genitive, to denote a part (or parts) of a thing, 
is rare in the earlier writers (Cicero) , with the exception of dimidium, 
half: e.g. dimidium pecuniae (Cic. Q. Fr. II. 4) ; but common at a 
later period, and in the poets : medium (reliqvum) noctis ; extre- 
mum aestatis; ad ultimum inopiae (Liv. XXIII. 19), to the extrem- 
ity of icant ; plana urbis; ultima Orientis. In the older writers, it is 
media nox, extrema aestas; ultimus Oriens (see § 311); plana 
urbis loca. In the poets and later writers, the partitive idea often 
disappears, and only the quality of the thing is expressed ; e.g. incerta 
belli, the uncertainty (accidents) of war ; lubricum paludum, slippery, 
marshy ground (Tac. Ann. I. 65). 1 

1 In poetical language also cuncta terrarum (Hor. Od. II. 1, 23), tlw. whole of the earth, 
and (according to Obs. 6) cuncti honiinum. 



248 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 285 

Obs. 6. In some rare instances, an adjective that is neither an adjec- 
tive of quantity, nor yet in the neuter gender, is used substantively with 
a partitive genitive; e.g. expediti militum (Liv. XXX. 9), the light- 
armed of the soldiers. 

Obs. 7. Beginners must observe, that, in English, the expressions, 
many of, few of, none of are often used where no partition is intended, 
but an enumeration of the whole ; in such cases, neither a genitive nor a 
preposition which signifies division can be employed, in Latin ; but we 
may say : amici, qvos multos habet (of whom he has many) , and 
qvos video esse nonnullos (Cic. pro Balb. 27), of whom I perceive 
there are some. Hominibus opus est eruditis, qvi adhuc, in hoc 
qvidem genere, nostri nulli fuerunt (Cic. de Or. III. 24) , of whom 
there have been none with us. Veniamus ad vivos, qvi duo de con- 
sularium numero reliqvi sunt (Cic. Phil. II. 6) . 

Obs. 8. The partitive genitive may also be governed by an adverb in 
the superlative, to show of which, among many, the predicate holds good 
in the highest degree ; Sulpicius Gallus omnium nobilium maxime 
Graecis litteris studuit (Cic. Brut. 20). 

Obs. 9. With the pronominal adverbs of place, which denote the place 
where a motion is to end, we find a genitive, signifying up to a certain 
point (degree) of something : Nescire videmini, qvo amentiae pro- 
gressi sitis (Liv. XXVIII. 27). Eo miseriarum venturus eram 
(Sail. Jug. 40). Of the same character is the phrase qvoad ejus 
facere poteris, fieri poterit. 

Obs. 10. The genitive loci sometimes follows pronominal adverbs of 
place to define them more exactly (antiquated) : ibidem loci res erit 
(literally, the matter will be at the same point of place) ; but especially 
locorum, terrarum, gentium, to strengthen the expression : Ubinam 
gentium sumus ? Ubicumqve terrarum et gentium violatum jus 
civium Romanorum est, ad communem libertatis causam perti- 
net (Cic. Verr. V. 55). Nusqvam gentium, nowhere in the world. 
(Longe gentium.) Of the same kind are the idioms postea loci, after- 
wards (strictly, at a later point of time) ; interea loci, in the mean 
time-, adhuc locorum, till now. 

Obs. 11. It is further to be observed, that the ablatives, hoc, eo, eo- 
dem, qvo, are sometimes put substantively with the genitive loci (eo 
loci), for hoc loco, eo loco, &c. 

§ 285. a. The genitive is put with words which denote a num- 
ber, a measure, or a quantity, in order to denote the kind, the thing 
measured or counted (genitivus generis) : — 

Magnus numerus militum; magna vis argenti; acervus fru- 
menti ; modius tritici ; vini tres amphorae ; ala eqvitum. Auri 



§ 285 THE GENITIVE. 249 

navis (Cic. Fin. TV. 37), a ship-load of gold; flumina lactis, rivers of 
milk (Ovid) . Tria millia eqvitum. See § 72. 

Obs. So also, sex dies spatii (Caes. B. C. I. 3, — property, six days' 1 
term = 3i term of six days; also, spatium sex dierum) ; sestertii 
bini accessionis (Cic. Verr. III. 49), two sesterces addition (accessio 
duoram sestertiorum, an addition of two sesterces) . Praedae homi- 
nura pecorumqve. Imber sangvinis. 

b. This genitive is governed by the nom. or ace. sing. neut. of an 
adjective of quantity (multum, plurimum, amplius, minus, mini- 
mum, tantum, qvantum, tantundem, nimium, sometimes exi- 
guum, 1 or of a (demonstrative, relative, interrogative, or indefinite) 
pronoun, and by nihil, the governing word being used as a substan- 
tive, in order to lay stress on the measure or degree or nature of 
the things spoken of: — 

Multum temporis in aliqva re ponere ; minimum firmitatis 
habere ; id negotii habeo ; hoc praemii ; hoc tantum laboris itiner- 
isqve (Cic. Verr. V. 49) ; nihil virium ; qvod roboris erat (ichat 
there was in strength, the strength which there was). Qvidqvid habui 
militum, misi. Qvid mini consilii datis ? Qvid tu hominis es ? 
(Ter. Heaut. IV. 6, 7), what sort of man are you? Esiguum campi 
(Liv. XXVII. 27) r Where this prominence is not aimed at, we find 
simply tantum studium, tanta (tarn multa) opera ; qvod consilium 
mini datis ? &c. (Plus operae = major opera, plus itself not being 
used as an adjective.) 

The above adjectives and pronouns may also have, for their genitive, 
a neuter adjective of the second declension, which stands as a substan- 
tive : aliqvid pulchri ; qviddam novi ; nihil boni ; tantum mali ; 
hoc incommodi ; qvod pulchri erat, omne sublatum est {whatever 
beautiful things there were) ; but also, aliqvid pulchrum ; nihil altum, 
nihil magnificum cogitare. (The adjectives of the third declension are 
not employed in this way ; we always find the form aliqvid memora- 
bile. The adjectives of quantity are combined with another adjective 
only in the genitive in the singular : plurimum novi ; in the plural, 
the other construction is used : plurima nova, § 301, b ; plura 
nova). 

Obs. 1. Such an adjective or pronoun, with a genitive, cannot be gov- 
erned by a preposition ; we must say, ad tantum studium, not ad tan- 
tum studii. Yet we find ad multum diei (ad multum diem), till 



1 Not magnum or parvum. 

2 [Cur sui qvidqvam esse imperii aut potestatis trans Rhenum postularet 
(Caes. B. G. IV. 16).] 



250 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 286 

late in the day ; and ad id loci (locorum), up to that point, up to that 
time. 

Obs. 2. The student should notice the expressions nihil reliqvi 
facer e (literally, to make no residue, i.e. to leave nothing remaining, 
undone), and nihil pensi habere (literally, to have nothing weighed, i.e. 
to care nothing ; nee qvicqvam iis pensi est, qvid faciant, Liv. 
XXXIY. 49). 

c. In the same way, the adverbs satis, abunde, affatim, nimis, and 
parum, are used as substantives in the nominative and accusative (but 
not after prepositions) with the genitive : Satis copiarum habes ; pa- 
rum prudentiae (too little prudence) . 

§ 286. Sometimes a substantive containing a more general idea 
is followed by another in the genitive, by which the former is 
denoted more specifically (genitivus definitivus, or epexegeti- 
CUS) : — 

Vox voluptatis, the word pleasure ; nornen regis, the kingly name, 
the name of king ; 1 verbum monendi, the word monere ; numerus 
trecentorum, the number three hundred; opus Academicorum, the 
treatise Academica; familia Scipionum, the Scipio family ; con- 
svetudo contra deos disputandi, the habit of disputing against the 
gods. (The genitive of the gerund is often used in this way.) 2 (Ar- 
bor fici, arbor abietis, the fig-tree, the fir-tree.) 

Obs. 1. In Latin, two substantives can never be connected immedi- 
ately (without apposition) in the same case, except when a person or a 
place is indicated at once by its generic and proper name (Rex Tullius, 
urbs Roma, amnis Rhenus, terra Italia). In geographical designa- 
tions, the proper name is also put in some few instances (chiefly by the 
poets) in the genitive : tellus Ausoniae (Virg. Mxi. III. 477) , the land 
of Ausonia ; celsa Buthroti urbs (Id. ib. III. 293) ; promontorium 
Pachyni (Liv. XXIY. 35). 

Obs. 2. In this way, the genitive sometimes supplies the place of 
apposition, when a general idea is followed by the special one which 
contains it ; e.g. Parvae causae vel falsae suspicionis vel repentini 
terroris (Cues. B. C. III. 72), small causes, which consist in false suspi- 
cion, or sudden alarm. 3 Aliis virtutibus, continentiae, gravitatis, 
justitiae, fidei, te consulatu dignum putavi (Cic. pro Mur. 10). 
Unum genus est infestum nobis eorum, qvos P. Clodii furor rapinis 
pavit (Id. pro Mil. 2) , the class which consists of those persons. 



1 But also in a possessive signification ; the name of the king, e.g. Frederic, &c. 

2 [Injuriae retentorum equitum Eomanorum (Cods, de Bell. Gall. III. 10).] 

3 Causa suspicionis may also mean the cause of the suspicion. 



§ 287 THE GENITIVE. 251 

Obs. 3. If, by the aid of the verb sum, a substantive is explained by 
another, which might have been combined with it without a verb in the 
genitive case to form a single idea, the genitive is often put with sum, 
and not the nominative, the subject being understood as repeated 
after sum: Unum genus est eorum, qvi, &c. (Cic. in Cat. II. 8), one 
class is that of those, consists of those. Captivorum numerus fuit 
septem millium ac ducentorum (Liv. X. 36), the number of the pris- 
oners icas seven thousand two hundred (numerus septem millium). 
Major pars Atheniensium erat (Just. V. 10), the greater part ivas of 
Athenians, consisted of Athenians ; but also, Praenestini maxima pars 
fuere (Liv. XXIII. 19). 

§ 287. The genitive of a substantive with an adjective (numeral, 
participle, pronoun) is either put with a substantive immediately 
by way of description, or is connected with a subject by the verb 
sum, in order to show its nature and properties, its requirements, 
its size and kind (the genitive of quality, the descriptive genitive). 

a. Juvenis mitis ingenii ; vir et consilii magni et virtutis ; civi- 
tates magnae auctoritatis ; plurimarum palmarum vetus gladiator 

(Cic. Rose. Am. 6), an old gladiator, who has obtained many victories. 
Natura humana imbecilla atqve aevi brevis est (Sail. Jug. 1) . 

b. Res magni laboris (which require much labor) ; hospes multi 
cibi (Cic. Fam. IX. 26). 

c. Classis trecentarum navium ; fossa centum pedum ; exsilium 
decern annorum ; homo infirm, generis ; multi omnium generum 
(Cic. de Or. II. 9), many men of every kind; vir ordinis senatorii ; 
omnes gravioris aetatis (Cass. B. G. III. 16), all men of advanced 
age. Virtus tantarum virium non est (Cic. Tusc. V. 1). Hoc 
non est tanti laboris, qvanti videtur. Classis fuit trecentarum 
navium. (Also, Critognatus magnae auctoritatis in Arvernis 
habitus est (Cass. B. G. VII. 77), passed for an influential man. 
Caesar diversarum partium habebatur (Svet. Jul. 1), it was sup- 
posed that Ccesar belonged to the opposite party. Di me finxerunt 
animi pusilli (Hor. Sat. I. 4, 17), have created me pusillanimous .) 

Obs. 1. We must particularly notice the descriptive compounds of the 
genitive modi with a pronoun, which are used altogether as indeclinable 
adjectives : hujusmodi, ejusmodi, illiusmodi, istiusmodi, ejusdem- 
modi, cujusmodi (relat. and interrog.), cujuscunqvemodi, cuicui- 
modi, cujusqvemodi; e.g. ejusmodi causa, ejusmodi causae, &c. 

Obs. 2. The genitive of quality resembles the ablative of quality 
(§ 272) ; but the genitive denotes more the general nature and kind of 
the subject (of), while the ablative rather puts forward particular quali- 



252 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 288 

ties and circumstances belonging to it (with). In many instances, these 
two forms of expression are either not at all or very slightly distin- 
guished; e.g. Neqve monere te audeo, praestanti prudentia virum, 
neque confirmare, maximi animi hominem (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 8). 
In the older writers (Cicero), the ablative is used of qualities in general 
more frequently than the genitive. But to express the requisites for a 
thing, its size and kind, the genitive alone (not the ablative) is em- 
ployed. See the examples, under b and c. On the other hand, the abla- 
tive only, and not the genitive, is used to express its constitution with 
reference to its external parts : Britanni sunt capillo promisso atqve 
omni parte corporis rasa praeter caput et labrum superius (Cses. 
B. G. Y. 14). We always say esse bono animo (to be of good 
courage) ; animo forti et erecto, ea mente ut, &c, of the state of 
mind, but maximi animi homo, of the whole character. (A man of 
genius, of character, homo ingeniosus, gravis.) 

Obs. 3. The genitive and ablative of quality are both generally sub- 
joined to an indefinite appellative noun (as we also say, in English, 
" Hannibal, a general of great ability," not, " Hannibal, of great abil- 
ity"^. Yet single exceptions are met with: Turn T. Manlius Torqva- 
tus, priscae ac nimis durae severitatis, ita locutus fertur (Liv. 
XXII. 60). Agesilaus, annorum octoginta, in Aegyptum pro- 
fectus est (Corn. Ages. 8), an old man of eighty, at the age of 
eighty} 

§ 288. Since the genitive is combined with another substantive in 
various significations, it may sometimes happen, if no ambiguity results 
from it, that two genitives may be attached to the same substantive, each 
with its own proper signification : Superiorum dierum Sabini cuncta- 
tio (Caes.B. G. III. 18), the delay of Sabinus during the preceding days; 
because we say, superiorum dierum cunctatio, the delay of the pre- 
ceding days. Scaevolae dicendi elegantia (Cic. Brut. 44). Labor 
est functio qvaedam vel animi vel corporis gravioris operis et 
muneris (Id. Tusc. II. 15), the execution by the soul or body of a work or 
office somewhat difficult.. One genitive may be governed by another : e.g. 
Haec fuit causa intermissionis litterarum (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 13), 
Erat majestatis populi Romani prohibere injuriam (Sail. Jug. 14). 
Reminiscere incommodi populi Romani et pristinae civitatis Hel- 
vetiorum (Ca?s. B. G. I. 14) ; but such combinations tend to make the 
style awkward or obscure. 2 



1 [Praestanti sapientia et nobilitate Pythagoras (Cic. Tusc. Disp. IV. 1). Ic- 
cius Remus, summa nobilitate et gratia inter suos (Caes. B. G. II. 6).] 

2 [The following is an instance of three genitives : Eomm dierum. consuetudine iti- 

neris nostri exercitus perspecta (Caas. B. G. II. 17)] 



§ 289 THE GENITIVE. 25o 

§ 289. The genitive is employed (as an objective genitive) with 
many adjectives which denote a quality that is directed to a certain 
object (transitive adjectives). (Compare § 283 on the objective 
genitive with substantives.) Such adjectives are the following : — 

a. All participles in the present from transitive verbs, when they 
stand as pure adjectives, — i.e. when they are not used to signify a rela- 
tion or action at a particular time, but denote a quality in general, — and 
the adjectives in ax formed from transitive verbs : amans reipublicae 
civis (amantior reipublicae, amantissimus reipublicae ; see § 62) ; 
negotii gerens {carrying on a business) ; injur iarum perfercns (but 
if an adverb be subjoined, the participle has usually the construction of 
the verb : homo facile injurias perferens) ; patiens laboris atqve 
frigoris ; appetens gloriae ; tenax propositi vir ; tempus edax 
rerum; capacissimus cibi viniqve. 

b. Those adjectives which denote a desire (knowledge) of a thing or 
experience in it, or the reverse (dislike, ignorance, inexperience) : as 
avarus, avidus, cupidus, studiosus (fastidiosus), conscius, inscius, 
nescius, gnarus, ignarus, peritus, imperitus, prudens, rudis, insolens 
(insolitus), insvetus, memor, immemor ; and sometimes those which 
denote forethought or want of forethought (providus, diligens, curi- 
osus, incuriosus) : e.g. cupidus gloriae, studiosus litterarum, per- 
itus belli, ignarus rerum omnium, insvetus male audiendi, memor 
beneficii; vir omnis officii diligentissimus (Cic. pro Cael. 30). l 

Obs. 1. Such is also the construction of consul tus in jurisconsultus, 
one acquainted with law (but also jureconsultus), and certus in the 
phrase certiorem aliqvem facere ; e.g. consilii, voluntatis (but as 
frequently with de). The poets and later writers employ also some 
other adjectives of cognate signification in this way ; e.g. callidus, 
doctus (doctissima fandi, Virg.). 2 

Obs. 2. Conscius is sometimes put according to this rule with the 
object in the genitive, and a dative of the person with whom one is privy 
to a thing (according to § 243) : e.g. conscius alicui caedis, mens 
sibi conscia recti, conscius sibi tanti sceleris (Sail. Cat. 34) ; some- 
times also with the dative of the thing to which a person is privy : con- 
scius facinori, conscius mendacio alicujus. 

Obs. 3. Rudis and prudens are also used with in ; prudens in jure 
civili. (Also rudis ad pedestre certamen, inexperienced in the foot- 
race ; insvetus ad onera portanda.) 



1 [Rudis agminum sponsus (Hor. Od. HT. 2, 9). Imbrium divina avis immi- 
nentum (Id. ibid. 27, 10).] 

2 [But dulces docta modos (Hor. Od. in. 9, 10). See § 228, Obs ] 



254 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 290 

§ 290. Further, an objective genitive is put — 

c. With those adjectives which denote power over a thing and the 
opposite, as compos, impos, potens, impotens ; e.g. compos mentis, 
impotens eqvi regendi. 

d. Those which denote a participation, a guilty concern in any thing, 
and the opposite, as particeps, expers, consors, exsors ; reus, ac- 
cused of a thing ; affinis, manifestus, insons ; e.g. particeps consilii, 
expers periculorum, reus furti (reum furti facio), insons probri, 
affinis rei capitalis. 

Obs. In later writers, noxius, innoxius, and suspectus are also so 
used. Affinis has also the dative. See § 247, b, Obs. 4. Consors is 
also used as a substantive ; consors alicujus (any one's partner) in 
lucris atqve furtis. 1 

e. Those adjectives which denote an abundance or want of any thing 
are put both with the genitive and ablative (§ 268) ; inops and (poet.) 
pauper have the genitive only : inops auxilii, pauper argenti (Hor.) ; 
and plenus is most frequently so constructed : plenus rimarum ; vita 
insidiarum et metus plena. 

Obs. 1. Egenus, indigus, and sterilis are usually found only with 
the genitive. 

Obs. 2. In the same way are constructed with the genitive, prodigus, 
profusus, lavish of (prodigus aeris) ; liberalis, generous with (liberalis 
pecuniae, Sail. Cat. 7) ; parous, sparing (parcissimus somni) . 

Obs. 3. In the poets those adjectives and participles whieh denote an 
exemption from any thing, also take the genitive, according to Greek 
usage. See § 268, b, Obs. 2. 

f Similis and dissimilis govern sometimes the genitive and some- 
times the dative. See § 247, b, Obs. 2. Proprius, peculiar to, has the 
genitive; e.g. vitium proprium senectutis (rarely the dative) . Com- 
munis often has the genitive : e.g. Memoria communis est multarum 
artium. Hoc commune est potentiae cupidorum cum otiosis 
(Cic. Off. I. 21) ; but also the dative : Omni aetati mors est com- 
munis (Id. Cat. M. 19). 

Obs. With the personal and reflective pronouns, communis must 
always be constructed with the dative, as in the following : commune 
mihi (tibi, sibi) cum aliqvo. 

g. The poets and later prose-writers (e. g. Tacitus) used many other 
adjectives besides with the genitive, to denote a certain reference to a 
thing, which is otherwise expressed by the ablative (with respect to) or 
by prepositions (de, in) ; e.g. modicus voluptatis (in voluptate), 
atrox odii, integer vitae (vita), maturus aevi, lassus maris ac viae 

1 Expers is found with the ablative (in Sallust), but it is unusual. 



§ 292 THE GENITIVE. 255 

(with the idea of a certain fulness and satiety), vetus militiae, 
ambiguus futuri (de futuro, with the notion of ignorance) , dubius 
viae, certus eundi. 1 Animi, in particular, is often put in this way with 
adjectives which denote a certain state of feeling ; aeger, anxius, laetus, 
ingens animi. Compare § 296, b, Obs, 3. 2 

§ 291. Those verbs also take a genitive (objective) which signify 
to remember and forget (memini, reminiscor, obliviscor ; very 
rarely, recordor), and those which denote to remind (a person) of 
a thing (admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio) : — 

Semper hujus diei et loci meminero. Oblivisci decoris et 
officii. Catilina admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae 
(Sail. Cat. 21). Omnes tui sceleris et crudelitatis ex ilia oratione 
commonefiunt (Cic. Yerr. V. 43) . 3 

Obs. 1. The accusative is often put with those verbs which signify to 
remember and to forget, most frequently with memini, when they denote 
to have a thing in the memory (knowledge of a thing) or the reverse (but 
not to think of a thing, or not to think of if) ; memini numeros, si 
verba tenerem (Virg. B. IX. 45). Oblivisci causam (to forget the 
case, of an advocate) . Antipatrum Sidonium tu probe meministi 
(Cic. de Or. III. 50), you still remember him, you knew him well. 
Recordor, to remember, think of, almost always governs the accusative ; 
we also find recordor de aliqvo. (Mentionem facio rei and de re.) 

Obs. 2. With admoneo, etc., we also have, instead of the genitive, 
the accusative neuter of a pronoun or numeral adjective (§ 228, c) ; and 
likewise the preposition de : Unoqvoqve gradu de avaritia tua com- 
monemur (Cic. Yerr. I. 59). 

Obs. 3. The impersonal expression, venit mihi in mentem, an 
idea strikes me, is put, in the same way as those verbs, with the 
genitive ; Venit mihi Platonis in mentem, Plato occurs to me. But 
it is also used personally, that which strikes a person being put as the 
subject : Non venit in mentem pugna apud Regillum lacum ? (Liv. 
VIII. 5.) Venit mihi in mentem vereri. 

§ 292. The verb niisereor (miseresco), to pity ; and the imper- 
sonal verbs miseret (miserescit, miseretur),piget, poenitet, pudet, 
taedet, pertaesum est, — have the object of the feeling (the person 



1 [Capitis minor (Hor. Od. III. 5, 42). Fessi rerum (Virg. iEn. 1. 178). Felices 
operum (Id. G. I. 277) ] 

2 [Also notus animi (Hor. Od. II. 2, 6).j 

3 The genitive with these verbs denotes that the mind is directed to an object, and is thus 
in combination with it. 



256 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 293 

or thing which one pities, is ashamed of, &c.) in the genitive. (The 
person who is ashamed, &c., is expressed by the accusative, § 226). 

Miserere laborum ! Miseret me fratris. Poenitet me consilii. 
Suae qvemqve fortunae poenitet (Cic.), every one is dissatisfied with 
his lot. Hos homines infamiae suae neqve pudet neqve taedet. 
The genitive with pudet also denotes the person before whom the shame 
is felt ; Pudet me deorum hominumqve (Liv. III. 19) . 

Obs. Instead of the genitive, we find also an infinitive of the action 
which is the object of repentance, shame, &c. Pudet me haec fateri. 
With piget, poenitet, pudet, we have sometimes a demonstrative or 
relative pronoun in the neuter as a subject. See § 218, Obs. 2. (Poeni- 
tendus, pudendus. See § 167, Obs.) Miseror, commiseror, to 
bewail, govern the accusative. 

§ 293. With those verbs which signify to accuse, impeach, con- 
vict, condemn, acquit, the name of the crime of which a person is 
accused, &c, is put in the genitive, as with aeeuso, incuso, insi- 
mulo, arcesso (to charge one before a court of justice) ; postlllo, 
ago cum aliqro (to bring an action against a person for — ) ; ar- 
guo, coarguo, eonvinco, damno, condemno, absolvo ; e.g. : — 

Accusare aliqvem furti; damnari repetundarum ; convincere 
aliqvem maleficii ; absolvere aliqvem improbitatis. 

Obs. 1. Besides the verbs cited, a few others are also so constructed 
in certain legal formulas : e.g. interrogare aliqvem ambitus (Sail. Cat. 
18), to charge a man with obtaining office corruptly; judicatus pecuniae, 
condemned in a case relating to money (Liv. IV. 14). We should like- 
wise notice the participle compertus, convicted (of a thing) ; e.g. 
nullius probri compertus. 1 

Obs. 2. The following construction is also used : accusare, postu- 
lare, damnare aliqvem de veneficio, de vi (but not arguo). The 
ablative crimine (ablat. instrum.) is likewise often put with these 
verbs : arcessere aliqvem crimine ambitus ; damnatus est crimine 
repetundarum, ceteris criminibus absolutus (in what relates to the 
remaining counts and charges). (Accusari, damnari, absolvi lege 
Cornelia, according to the Cornelian law : absolvi suspicione sceleris, 
to be relieved from the suspicion of crime.) (Accusare inertiam 
adolescentium, to complain of the indolence of young men.) 

Obs. 3. With damno and condemno, the punishment to which a 
person is condemned (that with which he shall atone for his crime), is 
put in the genitive or ablative ; e.g. damnari capitis, pecuniae, or 

1 In the Jurists teneri (furti). 



§ 294 THE GENITIVE. 257 

capite. 1 Omnia mortalium opera mortalitate damnata sunt (Sen. 
Ep. 91). For a definite penalty consisting of money or land, the ablative 
is always employed : damnari decern millibus, tertia parte agri, as 
with multo always ; agro pecuniaqve hostes multare. (Damnari ad 
bestias, in metalla. Voti damnari.) 

§ 294. When the price for which a thing is bought, sold, or made, 
is stated indefinitely (by an adjective of quantity, or nihilum), the 
price is expressed in the genitive with tanti, qvanti (tantidem, 
qvantivis, qvanticunqve), pluris, minoris; but in the ablative 
with magno, plurimo, parvo, minimo, nihilo, nonnihilo. 2 With 
those verbs which signify to estimate (duco, facio, habeo, pendo, 
puto, taxo, together with sum signifying to be worth, have a certain 
price), the genitive of all these words is employed, aestimo alone 
having both cases : — 

Qvanti Chrysogonus docet? (Juv. VII. 176), On what terms does 
Chrysogonus teach ? Frumentum suum qvam plurimo vendere. 
Qvanti oryza empta est ? Parvo (Hor. Sat. II. 3, 156). Volup- 
tatem virtus minimi facit. Datames unus pluris apud regem 
fiebat qvam omnes aulici (Corn. Dat. 5). Homines sua parvi 
pendere, aliena cupere solent. Parvi sunt foris arma, nisi est 
consilium domi (Cic. Off. I. 22). Magni and magno aestimo 
virtutem. 3 

Obs. 1. The verbs which mean to estimate take also (in common dis- 
course) the genitives flocci, nauci, assis (unius assis), teruncii, with 
a negative, signifying not to value in the least, to esteem not worth a far- 
thing : Judices rempublicam flocci non faciunt (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 
5). (Hujus non facio, i" care not that much for it !) Putare, habere 
pro nihilo. 

Obs. 2. Here we may also notice the idioms, aeqvi boniqve (or 
boni alone) facio aliqvid, boni consulo, to take in good part. 

Obs. 3. The expression tanti est first denotes simply something 
(something good) is worth so much, is of such importance, that one 
ought to do or bear something for its sake ; Tanti non fuit Arsacem 
capere, ut earum rerum, qvae hie gestae sunt, spectaculo careres 
(Cael. Cic. ad Fam. VIII. 14). Without any definite subject, we have : 
tanti est, it (the thing spoken of) is worth the trouble ; nihil est tanti, 



1 Damnatusqve longi 
Sisyphus Aeolides laboris (Hor. Od. II. 14, 19). 

2 The genitive of tantus, qvantus, and the comparatives, the ablative of nihilum, 
of the positives and superlatives (as also of the diminutive tantulum). 

3 This genitive is nearly allied to the genitive of quality. 

17 



258 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 296 

it is not worth the trouble. Lastly, it is used of an evil which it is worth 
while to bear (which one is ready to bear) , usually with an infinitive for 
its subject : Est mihi tanti, Qvirites, hujus invidiae tempestatem 
subire, dummodo a vobis belli periculum depellatur (Cic. Cat. II. 
7) ; but also with a substantive : Aut si rescierit (Juno), sunt, o, 
sunt jurgia tanti (Ov. Met. II. 424), then I will bear her braiding. 

§ 295. The impersonal verb interest, it is of importance, points 
out the person or thing to whom a matter is of importance, by the 
genitive or the possessive pronouns mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra 
(abl. sing. fern.). Refert,. in the same signification, has the same 
construction with the pronouns, but rarely with the genitive. 1 

Caesar dicere solebat, non tarn sua qvam reipublicae interesse, 
ut salvus esset (Svet. Jul. 86). Clodii intererat, Milonem perire 
(Cic. pro Mil. 21). Qvid tua id refert? (Ter. Phorm. IV. 5, 11). 
(Refert compositionis, Qvinct. IX. 4, 44, it is of importance for the 
rhetorical arrangement of words.) 

Obs. 1. Ad is generally employed to express that in reference to 
which something is of importance ; Magni ad honorem nostrum 
interest, me qvam primum ad urbem venire (Cic. ad Fam. XVI. 1). 

Obs. 2. The thing which is of importance may be designated by a 
neuter pronoun (so that the verbs do not stand quite impersonally) : 
Qvanti id refert ? Hoc vehementer interest reipublicae ; or by an 
infinitive : Omnium interest recte facere ; but it is most frequently 
expressed by the addition of a clause with the accusative and infinitive, 
or with ut (ne). or in an interrogative form. Of how much importance 
it is, is denoted either by adverbs (multum, plurimum, tantum, 
qvantum, nihil, magnopere, vehementer), or by the genitive of the 
price (magni, parvi, qvanti, &c). 

Obs. 3. The verbs impleo, compleo, egeo, and particularly in digeo, 
are sometimes used with the genitive instead of the ablative. See under 
ablative, § 260, a, Obs., § 261, a, Obs. Concerning the poetical geni- 
tive with verbs which signify to desist, to refrain from, see § 262, Obs. 4. 2 

§ 296. a. The names of towns and small islands of the first and 
second declension singular are put in the genitive, to denote the 
place where a thing is or occurs : — 

Romae esse, Rhodi vivere, Corinthi habitare. (Of other names 
the ablative is used. See § 273, a.) 

i The origin of this singular construction is unknown. Perhaps the pronoun has a kind 
of adverbial signification ; in my direction {in relation to me). 
2 Concerning ergo with the genitive, see § 172, Obs. 5. 



§ 296 THE GENITIVE. 259 

Obs. 1. Sometimes the genitive of larger (Greek) islands is also so 
used : Cretae considere (Virg. iEn. III. 162) ; Conon Cypri visit 
(Corn. Chabr. 3), or (but rarely) of the Greek names of countries in 
us: Chersonesi domum habere (Corn. Milt. 2). Compare § 232, 
Obs. 3 and 4. 

Obs. 2. Such a genitive rarely has an appositive expression sub- 
j )ined, and then the ablative with in is used : Milites Albae consti- 
terunt, in urbe opportuna, munita, propinqva (Cic. Phil. IV. 2). 
In a very few such cases the ablative without in is used : Vespasianus 
Corinthi, Achajae urbe, nuntios accepit de Galbae interitu (Tac. 
Hist. II. I). 1 If urbs or oppidum (insula) with in precedes, the 
name of the town (or island) is in the ablative : Cimon in oppido 
Citio mortuus est (Corn. Ciin. 3) ; in insula Samo (Svet. Oct. 
28). (likewise in ipsa Alexandria, with a pronoun or adjective. We 
also find tota Tarracina, Cic. de Or. II. 59, in all Tarracina, according 
to § 273, c.) 

Obs. 3. This idiom proceeds from the fact that the genitive singular 
of the first and second declension (in i) has a different origin from the 
genitive of the third declension, and at first, in addition to its other 
meanings, conveyed the notion of being in a place. 

b. In the same way are used the genitives domi, at home ; humi, 
on the ground (to the ground) ; with belli and militiae in conjunc- 
tion with domi : — 

Sedere domi. Parvi sunt foris arma, nisi est consilium domi 
(Cic. Off. I. 22), Humi jacere, prosternere aliqvem humi. P. 
Crassi, L. Caesaris virtus fuerat domi militiaeqve cognita (Cic. 
Tusc. V. 19). Saepe imperatorum sapientia constituta est salus 
civitatis aut belli aut domi (Cic. Brut. 73) . (In other connections, 
we have in bello, in militia.) 

Obs. 1. Domi in this signification may be combined with a genitive 
or a possessive pronoun : Marcus Drusus occisus est domi suae. 
Clodius deprehensus est cum veste muliebri domi Caesaris. (Domi 
alienae.) Otherwise it is expressed thus : in domo aliqva ; in domo 
casta ; in domo, in the house (not at home). 

Obs. 2. For humi the poets also say humo, in humo. (Always as 
in humo nuda, when an adjective follows.) 

Obs. 3. In the same way animi is employed in expressions which 
denote doubt and anxiety : Exspectando et desiderando pendemus 
animi. Absurde facis, qvi te angas animi (also animo). Tot 
populos inter spem metumqve suspensos animi habetis (Liv. VIII. 
13). Confusus atqve incertus animi (Id. I. 7). 



1 [Antiochiae, celebri qvondam urbe et eopiosa, antecellere omnes inge- 
nii gloria contigit (Cic. pro Arch. poet. 3).] 



260 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 297 

§ 297. a. The same relation which is expressed by the genitive 
is commonly expressed by the possessive pronouns (which repre- 
sent the genitive of the personal) : — 

Pater meus; libri mei; ista domus tua est; comitia tua {which 
concern you) ; mea causa, for my sake (§ 256) ; nulla tua epistola, 
no letter from you ; unis litteris meis ; cum magno meo dolore. 
Tuum est videre, qvid agatur. A genitive may therefore stand in 
apposition to a possessive pronoun : e.g. Tuum, hominis simplicis, 
pectus vidimus (Cic. Phil. II. 43). Cui nomen meum absentis 
honori fuisset, ei meas praesentis preces non putas profuisse? 
(Id. pro Plane. 10.) Mea unius opera respublica salva est (Cic. 
in Pis. 3), by my activity alone. Vestra ipsorum causa. Hi ad 
vestram omnium caedem Romae restiterunt (Cic. Cat. IV. 2). 
The genitives unius, ipsius (ipsorum), in particular, are often so con- 
structed. 

Obs. The genitives nostrum and vestrum are often put with 
omnium for noster and vester, always indeed when omnium precedes ; 
Voluntati vestrum omnium parui (Cic. de Or. III. 55), your unani- 
mous wish (voluntati vestrae parui) . Patria est communis omnium 
nostrum parens (Id. Cat. I. 7). Otherwise but rarely; e.g. splendor 
vestrum for vester (Id, ad Att. VII. 13). 

b. When a personal or reflective pronoun ought to be subjoined 
to a substantive, adjective, or verb as an object in the genitive (ob- 
jective genitive), the genitive neuter singular of the corresponding 
possessive pronoun (mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri : properly, of my 
being, &c.) is used instead of the wanting genitive ; e.g. : — 

Studium nostri, devotion to us. Rogo, ut rationem mei habeatis, 
that you would have regard to me. Habetis ducem memorem vestri, 
oblitum sui (Cic. Cat. IV. 9). Pudet me vestri. Grata mihi 
vehementer est memoria nostri tua (Cic. ad Fam. XII. 17), your 
remembrance of me, that you think of me. Multa solet Veritas prae- 
bere vestigia sui (Liv. XL. 54) . 

Obs. 1. With personal names, which contain the idea of an active 
verb, the subjoined genitive may merely denote, with reference to whom 
a person is so named : it is then considered as a possessive genitive, and 
is represented by a possessive pronoun ; e.g. accusator tuus (Cice- 
ronis) . Nosti Calvum, ilium laudatorem meum (Cic. ad Att. 1. 16) . 
But it may also be considered as an objective genitive, the idea of an 
action or operation, of which some one is the object, being put promi- 
nently forward ; e.g. frater meus misit filium ad Caesarem, non 
solum sui deprecatorem, sed etiam accusatorem mei (Cic. ad Att. 
XL 8), to entreat for himself to complain of me. Omnis natura est 



§ 298 THE GENITIVE. 261 

servatrix sui (Id. Fin. V. 9), strives to preserve itself. With a few 
other words, too, the genitive may be differently understood, and therefore 
represented by pronouns in different ways : e.g. imago mea, my picture • 
and imago mei, a picture of me (which represents me) . On the other 
hand, a possessive pronoun is rarely substituted for a clearly objective 
genitive : e.g. meo desiderio for desiderio mei, from a longing for 
me ; tua fiducia for fiducia tui (Cic. Yerr. Y. 68). Habere rationem 
suam (Id. Off. I. 39= sui). 

Obs. 2. The genitives mei, tui, &c, may also be used instead of a 
possessive pronoun, to mark something emphatically, as belonging to the 
nature of a thing: Pressa est tellus gravitate sui (Ov. Met. I. 30), 
hy its weight (the weight peculiar to it) . Later writers sometimes carry 
this still further. 

c. The partitive genitive of nos, VOS, is represented (when a 
number is divided) by nostrum, vestrum : — 

Magna pars nostrum ; multi vestrum ; uterqve nostrum ; qvis 

vestrum ? But if a partition of the human being is spoken of, 

the genitives, mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are employed ; e.g. Nostri 
melior pars animus est (Senec. Qv. Nat. I., prsef.). 

Obs. Nostrum and vestrum are rarely used objectively for nostri and 
vestri : Cupidus vestrum (Cic. Yerr. III. 96). Custos urbis et ves- 
trum (Id. Cat. III. 12), of the town and you, each individual of you. 
To express partition (of a number) with the reflective pronoun, we must 
use ex se or suorum (of this or their people) . 

§ 298. Appendix to Chapter V. a. In such special relations as 
cannot be expressed by the genitive, a substantive, to limit the 
meaning of another substantive, may be connected with it by a pre- 
position : judicium de Volscis ; voluntas totius provinciae erga 
Caesarem. But the beginner must beware of using such construc- 
tions, where the preposition in English only connects one idea with 
the other in a general way ; for, in such cases, the relation is ex- 
pressed in Latin by a possessive or objective genitive ; e.g. not 
Livius in proemio ad bellum Punicum, but in proemio belli 
Punici. 

b. The referring of a preposition with its case to a single sub- 
stantive may sometimes be obscure in Latin, in consequence of the 
want of a definite article and the free position of the words, because 
the definition may be also referred to the verb and the whole predi- 
cate, or it may give a clumsy character to the sentence. In such 
cases the construction with a preposition is avoided. But no am- 
biguity arises, and this construction is most frequently employed. 



262 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 298 

1. When the substantive to which the words refer has already a geni- 
tive, or ? an adjective or pronoun with it, so that the preposition with its 
case may be attached to the first definition as a second and more accurate 
one, being usually put between the principal substantive and the genitive 
or adjective : Caesaris in Hispania res secundae (Cses. B. C. II. 37) ; 
sextus liber de officiis Hecatonis (Cic. Off. III. 23) ; caedes in 
pace Fidenatium colonorum (Liv. IV. 32) ; omnes ante Socratem 
philosophi (Cic. Acad. I. 4). Ista mini fuit perjucunda a proposita 
oratione digressio (Id. Brut. 85). 

2. Where the substantive, and the definition annexed by the 
preposition may, from their signification, be naturally and easily 
combined into one idea, as, for instance, verbal substantives with 
prepositions which are akin to the signification of the verb contained 
in the substantive ; substantives which denote a temper of mind, or 
a way of acting, with in, erga, adversus ; names of persons and 
things with de, ex (in certain combinations, a), to denote their 
origin, class, home, place of starting (with de and ex also, in a 
partitive signification), or with cum and sine, to denote that which 
does or does not pertain to or accompany ; names of external objects, 
with their local relations defined by ad and in ; and in some other cases, 
especially where, from the arrangement of the words, the preposition 
points more to the substantive than the verb : Discessio ab omnibus 
iis, qvae sunt bona in vita (Cic. Tusc. I. 34) ; reditus in urbem ; 
aditus ad me (iter ex Hispania, in Macedoniam) ; totius provin- 
ciae voluntas erga Caesarem ; crudelitas in cives ; contumeliae et 
injuriae in magistratum Milesium (Cic. Yerr. I. 34) J auxilium ad- 
versus inimicos ; homo de plebe Romana. de schola ; civis Ro- 
manus a conventu Panormitano; caduceator ab Antiocho (Liv. 
XXXVII. 45) ; litter ae a Gadibus ; aliqvis de nostris hominibus 
(Cic. pro Flacco, 4) ; morbus cum imbecillitate ; simulacrum Ce- 
reris cum facibus (Cic. Yerr. IY. 49) ; sine ratione animi elatio ; 
lectionem sine delectatione negligo (Id. Tusc. II. 3) ; homo sine 
re, sine fide, sine spe (Id. pro Casl. 32) ; omnia trans Iberum, 
Antiochia ad Sipplum ; insulam in lacu Prelio vendere (Cic. 
pro Mil. 27) ; metus insidiarum a meis (Id. Somn. Scip. 3), insidious 
plottings on the part of my friends ; omnis metus a vi atqve ira deo- 

rum sublatus est (Id. N". D. I. 17), all fear in respect to, of . 

Canulejus victoria de patribus (over the patricians) et favor e plebis 
ingens erat (Liv. IY. 6). 

Obs. 1. To avoid ambiguity, a suitable participle may be introduced : 
e.g. judicium de Volscis factum ; litterae Gadibus allatae ; insula 
in lacu Prelio sita ; lectio delectatione carens ; sometimes, too, a 
periphrasis with a relative may be employed : e.g. libri, qvi sunt de 



§ 299 THE VOCATIVE. 263 

natura deorum, or, libri, qvos Cicero de natura deorum scripsit. 

In other cases, an adjective is put instead of a preposition with its case. 
See § 300, Obs. 3. 

Obs. 2. Two connected limiting words, of which one is subordinate to 
the other, cannot be joined to a substantive by prepositions ; we, there- 
fore, cannot say, simulacrum Cereris cum facibus in manibus, but 
faces manibus tenens. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE VOCATIVE. 

§ 299. a. The Vocative is used when a person is called or spoken 
to, and is inserted in the sentence without any connection with the 
rest of the proposition : — 

Vos, o Calliope, precor, aspirate canenti? (Virg. iEn. IX. 525), 
Assist me, Calliope, thou and thy sisters! 

The interjection o is not inserted in prose, in customary addresses, 
or in calling to a person (Credo ego vos, judices, mirari (Cic). 
Vincere scis, Hannibal ; victoria uti nescis. Adeste, amici !) but 
only in exclamations of surprise, of joy, or of anger : O dii boni, qvid 
est in hominis vita diu (Cic. Cat. Maj. 19). O tenebrae, o lutum, 
o sordes, o paterni generis oblite ! (Id. in Pis. 26). Compare § 236, 
Obs. 1. 

Obs. In the poets, o is often prefixed to the vocative, without any 
particular emphasis. 

b. Limiting words may be added to the word which stands in the 
vocative according to the common rules : — 

Prima dicte mihi summa dicende Camena, Maecenas ! (Hor. 
Ep. I. 1) thou, Maecenas ! sung (i.e. whom I have sung) in my first song t 
and shall sing in my last. 

Obs. 1. In the poets, and in antiquated style, the nominative is some- 
times found instead of the vocative : e.g. Almae filius Majae ! (Hor. 
Od. I. 2, 43). Vacuas aures mihi, Memmius, adhibe (Lucr. I. 45). 
Vos, o Pompilius sangvis (Hor. A. P. 292) . Audi tu, populus Al- 
banus (Liv. I. 24). 

Obs. 2. In some rare instances, a word in apposition in the nomina- 
tive is added to the vocative; e.g. Hoc tu (audes), succinctus patria < 
qvondam, Crispine, papyro ? (Juv. IV. 24). Conversely, we some- 
times meet with the vocative of a participle or adjective which would 



264 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 300 

be more correctly in the nominative to agree with the subject of the verb ; 
Heu! terra ignota canibus date praeda Latinis alitibasqve jaces 
(Virg. JEn. IX. 485). 

Obs. 3. In prose addresses, the vocative is usually put after some 

other words in the proposition : Credo ego vos, judices, mirari 

Qvousqve tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra ? Yet it may 
be prefixed with a kind of solemn dignity : Rex Bocche! Magna nobis 
laetitia est (Sail. Jug. 102), as also in vehement expressions of feeling: 
O mi Attice, vereor (Cic. ad Att. XIY. 12). 



. CHAPTER VII. 

OF THE USE OF THE ADJECTIVES (ADVERBS), AND PARTICU- 
LARLY OF THEIR DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

§ 300. a. An Adjective is either put with a substantive simply 
as an attribute or predicate, to denote a quality in general (vir bo- 
nus, vir est bonus), or it stands in apposition, and denotes, with 
reference to the verb, the state of the substantive during the action ; 
e.g.: — 

Multi eos, qvos vivos coluerunt, mortuos contumelia afficiunt 

(in their lifetime, after their death). Natura ipsa de immortalitate 
animorum tacita judicat (Cic. Tusc. I. 14). Legati inanes (empty- 
handed) ad regem revertuntur (Id. Verr. IV. 28). Hannibal oc- 
cultus subsistebat (Liv. XXII. 12), secretly halted. With a collective 
substantive, such an apposition is regulated according to the verb : Cu- 
neus hostium, ut labentem ex eqvo Scipionem vidit, alacres gau- 
dio per totam aciem discurrunt (Liv. XX Y. 34) . 

b. Those adjectives, more especially, which denote order and 
succession, are used in apposition in Latin, where in English we 
should use an adverb (qualifying the verb) or a periphrasis with a 
relative clause. 

Hispania postrema omnium provinciarum perdomita est (Liv. 
XXVIII. 12), Spain was reduced to obedience last of all the provinces ; 
or, Of all the provinces, Spain was the last that ivas reduced to obedience. 
Omnium exterarum nationum princeps Sicilia se ad amicitiam 
populi Romani applicuit (Cic. Verr. II. 1). Dubito, qvid primum, 
qvid medium, qvid extremam ponam. Gajus qvintus advenit 
Medius ibam (in the middle). 



§ 300 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 265 

c. In the same way are used totus, solus, diversus (different 
ways), sublimus (on high), freqvens, proximus, as also prudens 
(knowingly) , sciens, imprudens, invitus : Philosophiae nos penitus 
totosqve tradimus (Cic. Tusc. V. 2) . Soli hoc contingit sapienti 
(only to the wise man). Aqvila sublimis abiit. Roscius erat Ro- 
mae freqvens (Cic. Rose. Am. 6) . Consules in provincias diversi 
abiere. Manlius assedit proximus Laelio. Plus hodie boni feci 
imprudens qvam sciens ante nunc diem unqvam (Ter. Hec. V. 2, 
40). Invitus discedo. (Dare alicui pecuniam mutuam.) 

Obs. 1. So, likewise, the relation between the direction of a move- 
ment, an -I the place where it occurs, is expressed by the adjectives adver- 
sus, secundus, obliqvus, joined with the name of the place : in adversum 
collem subire (up the hill) ; secundo flumine navigare ; obliqvo 
monte decurrere (Liv. VII. 15), obliquely down the mountain. 

Obs. 2. Other adjectives also, which denote relations of time and place, 
are used by the poets in apposition, instead of adverbs : Aeneas se ma- 
tutinus agebat (Virg. jEn. VIII. 465) . Gnavus mane forum, ves- 
pertinus pete tectum (Hor. Ep. I. 6, 20) . Domesticus otior (Id. Sat. 
I. 6, 128)=domi. 

Obs. 3. It is to be observed, that in not a few cases, where, in Eng- 
lish, a substantive is denned by another substantive with a preposition, 
or a compound substantive is used, the definition is expressed, in Latin, 
by a derivative adjective, which denotes something that stands in a cer- 
tain relation, consists of a certain material, belongs to something, &c. ; 
e.g. filius herilis, tumultus servilis (the rising of the slaves), bellum 
sociale, vincula ferrea, iter maritimum, pedestre, metus regius 
(Liv. II. 1), awe (entertained) of the Jang (objective), Hector Naevia- 
nus (the Hector of the poet Ncevius), Hercules Xenophonteus ; and so 
frequently with proper names. Those adjectives should be particularly 
noticed which express the home, and place of residence : Dio Syracusa- 
nus (of Syracuse), Hermodorus Ephesius, &c. (far less frequently, 
Cn. Magius Cremona, Turnus Herdonius ab Aricia (Liv. I. 50), and 
others) ; also, the place where a thing has happened : clades Allien- 
sis, pugna Cannensis. In some cases, both forms are used : poculum 
aureum and ex auro; pugna Leuctrica and pugna Lacedaemoni- 
orum in Leuctris (Cic. Div. II. 25). Bellum servile and bellum 
servorum. (Conversely, a genitive is sometimes found in Latin, where 
an adjective would be used in English ; as, domicilia hominum, human 
dwellings.) 

Obs. 4. It is rarely the case that any other adjectives are added to a 
proper name (in prose) than those which serve to discriminate several of 
the same name (e.g. Africanus major, minor, Piso Frugi, as a sur- 
name, magnus Alexander, Liv. VIII. 3), or express the native place 



266 LATIN GRAxMMAR. § 301 

or residence ; other adjectives can only stand with a common noun put 
in apposition : e.g. Plato, homo sapientissimus, the wise Plato; Capua, 
urbs opulentissima, the wealthy Capita. We find, also, Ilia severa 
Lacedaemon (Cic. Legg. II. 15), with the addition of a pronoun. 
(The poets, on the other hand, allow themselves such expressions as 
docti verba Catonis, doctae Athenae, and the like.) It is also un- 
usual, in Latin prose, to put with common nouns adjectives which are to 
characterize, not one or more individuals, but the whole class. Such ad- 
jectives are generally put with a more comprehensive generic term : 
e.g. columba, animal timidissimum, the timid dove (of doves in 
general). 

Obs. 5. When a substantive in combination with an adjective de- 
notes a particular kind and class (e.g. navis oneraria), an additional 
characteristic may be added by means of a new adjective ; e.g. navis 
oneraria maxima (Cic. Verr. V. 52), statuae eqvestres inauratae 
(Id. ibid. II. 61), corona aurea exigua. (Instead of multae graves 
causae, multa magna incommoda, we must say, multae et graves 
c, multa et magna inc., and so in general, when multus is followed by 
an adjective in the positive that denotes a good or bad quality, or a cer- 
tain degree of importance. But multi fortissimi atqve optimi viri 
(Cic. Fam.Y. 17). 

§ 301. Adjectives are sometimes used as substantives in order to 
designate persons or things distinguished by a particular quality. 
With respect to this we may observe : — 

a. The plural of adjectives is often used to designate men of a 
particular class and kind: e.g. docti, the learned; boni, the good; 
omnes boni, all good men (also homines docti, and in certain com- 
binations viri, as viri fortes, viri boni) : the singular, on the con- 
trary, is rarely so used, and only when the context excludes all 
ambiguity ; e.g. : — 

Assentatio non modo amico, sed ne libero qvidem digna est 
(Cic. Lael. 24). Est prudentis, sustinere impetum benevoientiae 
(Id. ib. 17. Compare § 282, and Obs. 1). Plurimum in faciendo 
interest inter doctum et rudem, non multum in judicando (Id. Or. 
III. 51). 

The nominative and accusative are very rarely so employed. 

Obs. In the philosophical style, however, sapiens (the ivise mail), 
is often used substantively. Sometimes, another adjective is subjoined 
to an adjective used substantively ; e.g. nihil insipiente fortunato 
intolerabilius fieri potest (Cic. Lael. 15), a fool favored by fortune. 
Nobilis indoctus (Juven. VIII. 49), an unlearned noble. (No man 
of learning, any learned man, are expressed by nemo doctus, qvis- 



§ 301 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 267 

qvam doctus, with the substantives nemo and qvisqvam, in the same 
way as nemo Atheniensis, qvisqvam Romanus ; a man of great 
learning, homo doctissimus ; a time philosopher, homo vere sapiens ; 
and thus always, when the degree and character of a quality are to be 
specified.) 

b. The whole class of objects of a certain character is expressed 
in Latin by the neuter plural : bona, what is good (good things) ; 
mala, what is bad (bonum, a good, something good ; malum, an 
evil, something bad ) ; omnia pulchra, every thing beautiful ; multa 
memorabilia, much that is remarkable ; ubi plurima nitent, where 
the greater part is beautiful ; omnia nostra, all that belongs to us. 
Omne pulchrum, every individual thing that is beautiful ; e.g. : — 

Omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat, Hor. A. P. 337 ; 
but never multum memorabile. (Compare what is said of the pro- 
nouns, § 312, b.) The singular, on the contrary, is made use of when 
an idea is general, and not a whole class of several objects is to be 
understood : e.g. verum, the truth, verum fateri, verum audire, in- 
vestigate veri (but vera nuntiare, to bring true intelligence ; Veritas, 
the quality of being true) ; natura, justi et aeqvi mater, the mother of 
justice and equity ; multum, plurimum, tribuo huic homini. 

Obs. 1. Often, too, the periphrasis with res is made use of; res 
bonae et honestae. With adjectives, ambiguity may result in those 
cases in which the neuter is not distinguished from the other genders. 
The adjectives of the third declension are not often used in the way last 
mentioned (in the singular), except in the nominative or accusative. 
(Mater justi, but not utilis. Yet Livy says (XLII. 47), Potior 
utilis qvam honesti cura.) 

Obs. 2. Concerning the neuter singular or plural of adjectives, with 
a genitive of the parts of a thing, see § 284, Obs. 5. 

Obs. 3. The neuter of adjectives is sometimes combined with prepo- 
sitions into particular phrases and adverbial expressions : e.g. esse in 
integro, to be undecided, so that one has his hands still free ; de (ex) 
improviso, unexpectedly; de integro, afresh; sine dubio, without 
doubt (doubt, subst. dubitatio) ; particularly with ex, but mostly in 
later writers : e.g. ex facili (= facile), ex affluent! (== affluenter). 

c. Certain adjectives have acquired the full force of inde- 
pendent substantives, their masculine and feminine suggesting in 
general only the idea of a person, the neuter that of a thing, with 
a given quality ; e.g. amicus, inimicus, adversarius, arnica (§ 247, 
b, Obs. 1) bonum, malum, ludicrum, a play ; simile, a likeness ; 
inane, empty space. With others, on the other hand, a particular 



268 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 303 

substantive was originally understood, which was left out by ellipsis, 
until the adjective gradually came to be used quite independently ; 
e.g. patria (civitas, urbs, terra), fera (bestia). 

Obs. 1. Some adjectives were so frequently used in combination with 
a particular substantive, that the adjective was in course of time used 
alone for the whole idea, but in such a way that the omitted substantive 
was clearly kept in view ; especially in certain combinations and with 
certain verbs which suggested the substantive : e.g. cani (capilli) ; 
frigidam, calidam (aqvam) potare ; primas, secundas (partes) 
agere, actor primarum ; tertiana, qvartana (febris) ; ferina (carne) 
vesci ; dextra, sinistra (manus) ; hiberna, stativa (castra) ; prae- 
texta (toga). Such expressions are to be learned by attentive reading, 
and from the dictionary. 

Obs. 2. (On the whole paragraph.) We should notice as a license 
(chiefly poetical), that in some few instances a substantive personal 
name is used in apposition with (nearly) the meaning of an adjective, and 
consequently with an adverb qualifying it : Minime largitor dux (Liv. 
VI. 2). Populus late rex (Yirg. Aen. I. 21). (Concerning iterum 
tertium consul, see § 220, Obs. 1.) In other cases, where an adverb 
appears to be combined with a substantive, it is merely a conciseness of 
expression which may easily be explained: e.g. Omnes circa populi 
(Liv. XXIV . 3) = omnes qvi circa sunt ; nullo publice emolumento 
(Liv. VI. 39) = qvod ad rempublicam attinet, sine ullo emolu- 
mento. 

§ 302. In the poets, adjectives in the neuter (accusative), sometimes 
in the plural, are not unfrequently put for adverbs, especially with verbs 
which denote an intransitive and external action that may be observed 
by the senses : e.g. altum dormire, torvum clamare, perfidum 
ridere, insveta rudens, acerba tuens ; turbidum laetari ; nefandum 
furens. Victor eqvus pede terrain crebra ferit (Virg. G. III. 499). 
(In prose, sonare, olere peregrinum, to have a foreign sound, savor ; 
§ 223, c, Obs. 2.) 

§ 303. a. When two words (ideas) are compared by means of 
an adjective or adverb, the last word (the second member of the com- 
parison) is combined with the first (the first member of the compari- 
son) by a particle of comparison (qvam, ac, than, as), and it is put 
in the same case if the verb or governing word is common to both 
members. Qvam is used with comparatives (ac only in antiquated 
and poetical style) : — 

Ignoratio futurorum malorum melior est qvam scientia. Ne- 
mini plura beneficia tribuisti qvam mini. Haec res laetitiae 



§ 303 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 269 

plus habet qvam molestiae. Hoc est hominis gloriae qvam 
scientiae studiosioris. Cui potius credam, qvam tibi? Donum 
specie qvam re majus. (Non Apollinis magis verum atqve hoc 
responsum est, Ter. Andr. IV. 2, 14). Titius non tarn acutus 
qvam Sejus est. Titium alia poena affecisti atqve Sejum. 

Obs. 1. Concerning the use of ac, see § 444, b. The members are 
put in the same case, even if the sentence be an accusative with an in- 
finitive : Decet nobis cariorem esse patriam qvam nosmetipsos 
(Cic. Fin. III. 19. Patria nobis carior est qvam nosmetipsi) . 

Obs. 2. Sometimes the word qvam with the second member of the 
comparison is put in juxtaposition with the first member before the com- 
parative, to make the contrast more striking : Ex hoc judicari potest, 
virtutis esse, qvam aetatis, cursum celeriorem (Cic. Phil. Y. 17). 
Maris subita tempestas qvam ante provisa terret navigantes 
vehementius (Id. Tusc. III. 22). 

b. If the first member is governed by a word which does not also 
belong to the second member of the comparison, a new proposition 
must be formed, with a verb of its own (sum) : — 

Haec verba sunt Varronis, hominis doctioris, qvam fuit Clau- 
dius (Gell. X. 1). Verres argentum reddidit L. Cordio, homini 
non gratiosiori, qvam Cn. Calidius est (Cic. Yerr. IY. 20) . Hoc 
est Titii, hominis non tarn acuti, qvam Sejus est 

If, however, the first member is an accusative, this case is often 
retained, although the governing word cannot be repeated (attrac- 
tion) : — 

Ego hominem callidiorem vidi neminem qvam Phormionem 
(Ter. Phorm. IY. 2, 1) =qvam Phormio est. Patrem qvum fervet 
maxime, tarn placidum reddo qvam ovem (Ter. Ad. IY. 1, 18) 
== qvam ovis est. Tibi, multi majori, qvam Africanus fuit, me, 
non multo minorem qvam Laelium, et in republica et in amicitia 
adjunctum esse patere (Cic. ad Fam. Y. 7) = qvam Laelius fuit. 

Obs. 1. The examples under a show that we may always use the 
same case when the first -member of the comparison is the subject, or 
when the adjective (the adverb in combination with an adjective or 
participle ; e.g. splendidius ornatus) does not belong as an attribute 
or predicate to the first member itself, but to another word. If, on the 
contrary, the adjective or adverb belongs (either alone, or as part of a 
description; e.g. majoris pretii, splendidius ornatus) to the first 
member of the comparison, and this is not the subject, the governing 
word can very seldom be repeated; e.g. Propemodum justioribus 



270 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 304 

utimur illis, qvi omnino avocant a philosophia, qvam his (viz. 
utimur, qvi rebus infinitis modum constituunt (Cic. Finn. I. 1). 

Obs. 2. Even if both the members of the comparison are subjects, a 
new proposition is formed with a verb of its own, if a difference of time 
is to be expressed: Pompejus munitior ad custodiendam vitam 
suam erit, qvam Africanus fuit (Cic. ad Q. Fr. II. 3). But such a 
difference of time is not always distinctly expressed. 

§ 304. If in a sentence with the comparative (of an adjective or 
adverb) the first member of the comparison is a nominative or accu- 
sative, the particle of comparison may be omitted and the second 
member put in the ablative (§ 271) : — 

Turpis fuga mortis omni est morte pejus (Cic. Phil. VIII. 10). 
Tullus Hostilius ferocior Romulo fuit (Liv. I. 22). Nihil est 
laudabilius placabilitate et aeqvitate. Qvid nobis duobus labori- 
osius est ? (Cic. pro Mil. 2, = qvis — laboriosior ? Nihil illo 
homine foedius.) Lacrima nihil citius arescit (Rhet. ad Her. II. 
31). Qvem auctorem locupletiorem Platone laudare possumus? 
(Cic. It. P. I. 10) . Cur Sybaris olivum sangvine viperino cautius 
vitat? (Hor. Od. I. 8, 9) == qvam sangvinem viperinum. 

But qvam is not omitted when the comparative as an adjective does 
not belong to the members of the comparison, but to another word : Tu 
splendidiorem habes villam qvam ego. 

Obs. 1. The omission of qvam after the comparative of an adverb is 
rare in prose. After the comparatives of adjectives the ablative is more 
frequently put in good prose for the nominative and for the subject- 
accusative (the accusative with the infinitive) than for the object-accu- 
sative. Yet the use of the ablative instead of an object-accusative is 
also not unfrequent, and particularly usual with pronouns ; Hoc nihil 
mihi gratius facere poteris. It should be especially noticed, that the 
relative pronoun is frequently put in the ablative, governed by a com- 
parative following, and accompanied by a negative, when we should 
employ in English a superlative in apposition : Phidiae simulacra, 
qvibus nihil in illo genere perfectius videmus (Cic. Orat. 8), than 
which we see nothing more perfect, i.q. the most perfect we see. Punicum 
bellum, qvo nullum majus Romani gessere (Liv. XXXVIII. 53), 
the greatest the Romans have ever prosecuted (not maximum quod 
Romani, but perhaps maximum eorum quae Romani). Qvam is 
never used in this construction with the relative. (Pleonastic : Qvid 
hoc tota Sicilia est clarius qvam omnes Segestae matronas et 
virgines convenisse, qvum Diana exportaretur ex oppido ? (Cic. 
Verr. IV. 35). 



§ 305 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 271 

Obs. 2. It is a rare license to put the ablative after the comparative 
when the latter stands in any other case than the nominative and accu- 
sative ; Pane egeo, jam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. I. 10, 
11) — qvam mellitae placentae sunt. 1 

Obs. 3. The poets use this ablative also with alius ; Ne putes alium 
sapiente bonoqve beatum (Hor. Ep. I. 16, 20). 

Obs. 4. In order to express that something exceeds what is supposed 
or required, or does not correspond to it, the Latins employ the abla- 
tives spe, exspectatione, opinione, justo, solito, aeqvo, necessario 
before a comparative, either of an adjective or adverb : e.g. Opinione 
omnium majorem animo cepi dolorem (Cic. Brut. 1). Caesar 
opinione celerius venturus esse dicitur (Cic. ad Fam. XIV. 23), 
than had been expected. Amnis solito citatior (Liv. XXIII. 19). 

§ 305. If a magnitude, which is expressed either by a numeral 
or by a substantive which denotes a measure (e.g. annus, a year ; 
pars dimidia, half; digitus transversus, a finger-breadth ; &c), 
is increased by plus or amplius {more than), or diminished by mi- 
nus (less than), plus, amplius, or minus, with or without qvam, is 
added to the name of the magnitude, without any influence on its 
case, which remains the same which the context would require 
without these comparatives (plus qvam triginta milites, plus tri- 
ginta milites, cum militibus plus qvam triginta, cum militibus 
plus triginta). But if this case be the nominative or accusative 
(intersunt sex millia, habeo decern milites), plus, amplius, or mi- 
nus, may be put as the nominative or accusative, and take the name 
of the magnitude in the ablative (interest amplius sex millibus, 
habeo plus decern militibus) ; e.g. : — 

a. Caeduntur Hispani nee plus qvam qvattuor millia effuge- 
runt (Liv. XXXIX. 31). Zeuxis et Polygnotus non sunt usi plus 
qvam qvattuor coloribus (Cic. Brut. 18). Caesar legem tulit, ne 
praetoriae provinciae plus qvam annum neqve plus qvam bien- 
nium consulares obtinerentur (Cic. Phil. I. 8). 

&. Plus septingenti capti sunt (Liv. XLI. 12). Plus pars dimi- 
dia ex qvinqvaginta millibus hominum caesa est (Id. XXXYI. 
40). Apes nunqvam plus unum regem patiuntur (Sen. de Clem. I. 
19). Spatium est non amplius pedum sexcentorum (Cses. B. G. 
I. 38). Plus dimidiati mensis cibaria (Cic. Tusc. II. 16). Tribu- 



1 The ablative after a comparative, which belongs to a third substantive, is a very rare 

exception ; c. Caesar majorem senatu animum habuit (Veil. Paterc. II. 61), = 
qvam senatus. 



272 LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§ 306 



num plebis plus viginti vulneribus acceptis jacentem moribun- 
dumqve vidistis (Id. pro Sest. 39) . Qvinctius tecum plus annum 
vixit (Id. pro Quinct. 12). With a different order: Decern haud 
amplius dierum frumentum (Tac, H. IV. 52. Cum decern haud 
plus millibus militum (Liv. XXVIIL 1) . 

c. Catilina initio non amplius duobus millibus militum habuit 
(Sail. Cat. 56). Roscius nunqvam plus triduo Romae fuit (Cic. 
Rose. Am. 27). Inter hostium agmen et nostrum non amplius 
senis millibus passuum intererat (Cses. B. G. I. 15). 

Obs. 1. When amplius, plus, or minus, with a plural, stands for the 
subject with or without qvam, the verb is always put in the plural : Am- 
plius sunt sex menses. 

Obs. 2. Plus and magis both signify more, but the former (like am- 
plius) relates to the quantity, the latter to the degree ; the former corre- 
sponds to the comparative of much, the latter to that of very ; magis is, 
conseqently, used as an adverb of comparison with verbs, adjectives, and 
other adverbs. With verbs, however, plus is also used as an adverb (prop- 
erly, to a greater extent, in a greater measure) ; e.g. Vitiosi principes plus 
exemplo qvam peccato nocent (Cic. Legg. III. 14). Fieri non 
potest, ut qvisqvam plus alterum diligat qvam se (Id. Tusc. III. 
29) . (In the positive, we rarely find such an expression as multum 
bonus — i.e. multum with an adjective, but more frequently, mul- 
tum utor aliqvo, have much intercourse ivith a person ; multum me 
litterae consolantur, Cic. ad Att. XIY. 13). To show that a word 
does not exhaust an idea, plus is always employed: Animus plus 
qvam fraternus. Confitebor eos plus qvam sicarios esse (Cic. 
Phil. II. 13) . On the other hand, magis (potius) timeo qvam spero. 
Non magis, non plus signifies as little, when both members of the com- 
parison are negative : Scutum, gladium, galeam in onere nostri mili- 
tes non plus numerant qvam humeros, lacertos, maims (Cic. 
Tusc. II. 16). Non nascitur ex malo bonum, non magis qvam 
ficus ex olea (Sen. Ep. 87) ; but it also denotes in no higher degree, i.e. 
the other as much, when both are affirmed : Jus bonumqve apud vete- 
res non legibus magis qvam natura valebat (Sail. Cat. 9) ; in the 
latter case, however, the word expressing the antithesis is often interposed 
between them. 

Obs. 3. We find (with the measure of the difference in the ablative, 
according to § 270) both Uno plus Etruscorum cecidit (Liv. II. 7), 
one more fell on the side of the Etruscans ; and Una plures tribus legem 
antiqvarunt (Id. V. 30), one tribe more. 

§ 306. With adjectives and adverbs, which denote a measure, 
and take an accusative (according to § 234, a), the simplest way of 



§ 308 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 273 

enhancing or diminishing the given measure is by the addition of 
plus, amplius, or minus, with or without qvam, according to the 
preceding paragraph : — 

Umbra non amplius qvattuor pedes longa (Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 
39). Nix minus qvattuor pedes alta jacuit (Liv. XXI. 61). Mi- 
nus qvinqve et viginti millibus longe ab Utica copiae aberant 
(Caes. B. C. II. 37). But we may also use the comparative of the adjec- 
tive or adverb (longer than four feet , instead of more than four feet long), 
and add the word expressing the measure, either in the accusative, with- 
out qvam, according to § 234, a, or in the ablative, if the adjective 
stands in the nominative or accusative : Digitum non altior unum 
(Lucr. IV. 415). Gallorum copiae non longius millia passuum 
octo aberant (Gees. B. G. V. 53). Palus non latior pedibus qvin- 
qvaginta (Id. ib. VII. 19). (Qvinqvaginta pedibus latior might 
also signify fifty feet broader than something else, according to 
§ 270.) 

Obs. 1. With natus (so many years) old, we say either (according 
to the first form of expression) , natus plus, amplius, minus (qvam) tri- 
ginta annos (rarely in the ablative, plus triginta annis), or (accord- 
ing to the second form), major (minor) qvam triginta annos natus 
(Liv. XLV. 32), or (omitting qvam), major triginta annos natus 
(Cic. pro Rose. Am. 14), or simply major (minor) triginta annis 
(without natus, Cic. pro Rose. Am. 35). l (Distinct from major (mi- 
nor), natu, older (younger) than another, and from grandis natu, 
maximus natu.) 

Obs. 2. Concerning the way in which the degree of difference is ex- 
pressed by the ablative with a comparative, see § 270, with Obs. 1. 

§ 307. A comparison of two qualities, which are found in the 
same subject or action in an unequal degree, is denoted either by 
the positive with magis, or by two comparatives ; e.g. : — 

Magis audacter qvam prudenter ; consilium magis honestum 
qvam utile ; L. Aemilii contio fuit verior qvam gratior populo 
(Liv. XXII. 38). Non timeo, ne libentius haec in Clodium 
evomere videar qvam verius (Cic. pro Mil. 29). Bella fortius 
qvam felicius gerere (Liv. V. 43). 

§ 308. The comparative also serves to denote that the quality 
referred to exists in a considerable or too high a degree : — 



1 The following forms of expression are of less frequent occurrence : major triginta an- 
nis natus; major triginta annis natu; major triginta annorum, with the 
genitive of quality and the omission of qvam. 

18 



274 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 310 

Senectus est natura loqvacior (Cic. Cat. M. 16) , rather talkative, 
somewhat talkative. Voluptas, qvum major atqve longior est, omne 
animi lumen exstingvit (Id. ib. 12). Themistocles minus parenti- 
bus probabatur, qvod liberius vivebat et rem familiarem negligebat 
(Corn. Them. 1). (Aliqvanto, paulo liberius. More definitely, nimis 
longus, libere.) 

Obs. 1. Too great in proportion to something (greater than one could 
expect according to something), is expressed by major qvam pro re 
aliqva: Proelium atrocius qvam pro numero pugnantium (Liv. 
XXI. 29). Too great (and not suitable) for something is sometimes ex- 
pressed by the comparative with the ablative (not qvam) ; Ampliores 
humano fastigio honores (Svet. Jul. 76 : otherwise, honores hu- 
manum fastigium excedentes, ultra hum. fastigium exaggerate and 
the like). 1 Too great (greater) for is expressed by major qvam ut or 
major qvam qvi; e.g. major qvam cui tu nocere possis, too great 
for you to hurt. 

Obs. 2. Isolated irregularities in the use of the comparative are 
met with here and there in certain writers (Sallust, Livy, and espe- 
cially Tacitus) ; e.g. the omission of magis or potius before qvam 
(Veteres Romani in pace beneficiis qvam metu imperium agita- 
bant, Sail. Cat. 9), or the addition of a superfluous magis or potius 
with a comparative (Themistocli optabilius videbatur oblivisci 
posse potius, qvod meminisse nollet, qvam, qvod semel audisset 
vidissetve, meminisse, Cic. de Or. II. 74. Siculi se ab omnibus 
desertos potius qvam abs te defensos esse malunt, Id. Dio. in 
Caec. 6), or the combination of a comparative and a positive (qvanto 
inopina, tanto majora, Tac. Ann. I. 68). 

§ 309. The comparative is used in Latin of the highest degree 
when two only are mentioned : — 

Qvaeritur, ex duobus uter dignior sit, ex pluribus, qvis dignissi- 
mus (Quinct. VII. 4, 21). Similiter faciunt, qvi inter se conten- 
dunt, uter potius rempublicam administret, ut si nautae certent, 
qvis eorum potissimum gubernet (Cic. Off. I. 25), of two rivals. 
Major fratrum melius pugnavit,^e eldest of the (two) brothers fought 
the best. 

§ 310. The superlative often denotes not that degree which is 
exclusively the highest (in comparison with all others of a certain 
class), but only a very high degree (really the highest, when the 
whole group, to which the individual is conceived of as belonging, 
is included) : — 

1 r Q,vid aeternis minorem consiliis animum fatigas? (Hor. Od. II. 11, 11).] 



§ 310 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 275 

Es tu qvidem mihi carissimus, sed multo eris carior, si bonis 
praeceptis laetabere (Cic. Off. III. 33). 1 Vir fortissimus et claris- 
simus L. Sulla. Optime valeo. The exclusive signification is known 
either from the context or from the addition of a partitive genitive or a 
preposition (optimus omnium, ex omnibus). 

Obs. 1. If the partitive genitive is of a different gender from the sub- 
ject, the gender of the superlative should properly be always regulated by 
that of the genitive, because it denotes a single object of that class : Ser- 
vitus omnium malorum postremum est (Cic. Phil. II. 44) ; but it is, 
notwithstanding, often regulated by that of the subject : Indus est om- 
nium fluminum mazimus (Cic. N". D. II. 52). Dulcissime rerum! 
(Hor. Sat. I. 9, 4). 

Obs. 2. The exclusive signification of the superlative is expressed more 
strongly by the addition of unus, or unus omnium ; e.g. P. Scaevo- 
lam unum nostrae civitatis et ingenio et justitia praestantissimum 
audeo dicere (Cic. Lasl. 1) . Res una omnium difficillima. Miltiades 
et antiqvitate generis et gloria majorum unus omnium maxime 
florebat (Corn. Milt. 1). The superlative (even when not exclusive) is 
increased in force by longe, multo (which is the measure of the difference 
between it and others) ; multo formosissimus. Concerning the super- 
lative with qvisqve, see the Appendix on the pronouns, § 495. 

Obs. 3. In order to express the highest possible degree, either qvam 
mazimus (optimus, &c), qvantus maximus; with adverbs, qvam 
maxime, qvantum maxime, ut maxime, are combined with possum, 
or we have only (less definitely) qvam maximus, qvam maxime ; 
Jugurtha qvam maximas potest (qvam potest maximas) copias 
armat (Sail. Jug. 48), as many troops as he can. Hannibal, qvantam 
maximam vastitatem potest, caedibus incendiisqve efficit (Liv. 
XXII. 3), the greatest devastation he can. Tanta est inter eos, 
qvanta maxima potest esse, morum studiorumqve distantia (Cic. 
Lael. 20) . Caesari te commendavi, ut diligentissime potui (Id; ad 
Fam. VII. 17). — Dicam qvam brevissime. Mini nihil fuit opta- 
bilius, qvam ut qvam gratissimus erga te esse cognoscerer (Cic. 
ad Fam. I. 5). Vender e aliqvid qvam plurimo. 

Obs. 4. We should also notice the way in which comparison is ex- 
pressed with the relative : Tarn sum mitis qvam qvi lenissimus (viz. 
est; (Cic. pro Sull. 31). Tarn sum amicus reipublicae qvam qvi 
maxime (Id. ad Fam. V. 2). Te semper sic colam et tuebor ut 
qvem diligentissime (sc. colam; Id. ib. XIII. 62). 



1 [Qvum ilia certissima sunt visa argumenta atqve indicia sceleris, ta- 
bellae, signa, maims, deniqve uniuscujusqve confessio, turn multo ilia cer- 
tiora, color, oculi, vultus, taciturnitas (Cic. in Cat. III. 5).] 



276 LATIN GRAMMAR. §312 

§ 311. The superlatives which denote an order and sequence 
according to time and place (primus, postremus, ultimus, novissi- 
mus, summus, infimus, imus, intimus, extremus), as well as the 
adjective medius, are often combined with a substantive, in order 
to denote that part of the thing which the adjective specifies; 
e.g.: — 

Vere primo, at the beginning of spring : extremo anno ; ad sum- 
mam aqvam appropinqvare, the surface of the water; summus 
mons a Labieno tenebatur, the summit of the mountain ; ex intima 
philosophia, from the innermost part of philosophy ; in media urbe, 
per medium mare, in the middle of the town, through the middle of the 
sea. (Particularly in expressing time and place in the ablative or with 
prepositions. Also reliqva, cetera Graecia, the rest of Greece.) 

Obs. Medius is also used (like a superlative) with a partitive geni- 
tive : Locum medium regionum earum delegerant, qvas Svevi 
obtinent (Cses. B. G. IV. 19). (Poetically, locus medius juguli et 
lacerti, instead of inter jugulum et lacertum, Ov. Met. VI. 409). 



CHAPTER VEX 

PECULIARITIES IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE 
AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 312. a. If a demonstrative pronoun stands alone, but refers 
to a substantive going before, it agrees with it in gender and num- 
ber as an adjective. If it refers to several connected substantives, 
the gender is determined according to the rule laid down in § 214, 
b and c. 

Mater et pater — ii ; honores et imperia — ea ; ira et avaritia — 
eae or ea. Bonus et fortis civis ita justitiae honestatiqve ad- 
haerescet, ut, dum ea conservet, qvamvis graviter offendat (Cic. 
Off. I. 25), these virtues. 

If a demonstrative pronoun designates some object not previously 
named, while the character and name of the object are definitely 
understood, it agrees in gender with the object understood : — 

Hie (eqvus) celerior est; haec (avis) pulchriores colores 
habet. If the thing be understood indefinitely and without any partic- 
ular name, the neuter is emploj r ed ; Hoc, qvod tu manu tenes, cupio 
scire, qvid sit 



§ 314 DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 277 

K If a demonstrative pronoun, which does not refer to any indi- 
vidual substantive, denotes something that comprehends a plurality 
(e.g. the contents of a speech, a series of circumstances), it is put 
in the neuter plural (like adjectives, § 301, b) : — 

Ea, qvae pater tuus elicit, vera sunt. Haec omnia scio. Fost- 
qvam haec rex animadvertit, constituit abire. Qvae narras, mini 
non placent (i.q. ea, qvae narras). (Hoc, this one circumstance.) 
The same holds of the relative pronoun, where it is used (copulatively) 
instead of the demonstrative ; Qvae qvum ita sint, since then this is so 
(since the circumstances are so) . (But of a single thing ; Qvod qvum 
ita sit.) 

§ 313. If a demonstrative pronoun is first put indefinitely as a 
subject or object (that, this), and then connected with a substantive 
by sum, or a verb that signifies to name or esteem, the pronoun 
takes the gender and number of the substantive (attraction) : — 

Romae fanum Dianae populi Latini cum populo Romano 
fecerunt. Ea erat confessio, caput rerum Romam esse (Liv. I. 
45). Haec mea est patria (Cic. Legg. II. 2). Eas divitias, earn 
bonam famam magnamqve nobilitatem putabant (Sail. Cat. 7). 
Cum ducibus ipsis, non cum comitatu confligant. Ulam enim 
fortasse virtutem nonnulli putabunt, hanc vero iniqvitatem 
omnes (Cic. pro Balb. 27). (Non amicitiae tales, sed conjura- 
tiones putandae sunt, Id, Off. III. 10, a thing of that hind {such a 
thing) is not to be regarded, &c. Nullam virtutem nisi malitiam 
putant, Id. Legg. I. 18, they consider nothing to be virtue.) 

Obs. The deviations from this are rare, and are generally the result 
of a particular effort, either to express a thing entirely indefinite (in the 
neuter; Nee sopor illud erat, Virg. iEn. III. 173), or to secure the 
more distinct conception of a person, which person is then described by 
means of a neuter substantive ; Haec (filia tua) est solatium, qvo 
reficiare (Sen. ad Helv. 17). > 

§ 314. It may also be noticed, that Latin writers sometimes use a 
demonstrative pronoun (or a relative instead) in agreement with sub- 
stantives, in a suggestive sense, instead of adding that which is suggested 
in the genitive case. The substantives in such cases usually denote an 
emotion of the mind : e.g. hie xlolor, this pain ; instead of dolor hujus 
rei, pain on account of this thing. Cassivellaunus essedarios ex 
silvis emittebat et magno cum periculo nostrorum eqvitum cum 
iis confligebat, atqve hoc metu (by the alarm thus occasioned) latius 
vagari prohibebat (Cses. B. G. V. 19). Sed haec qvidem est per- 
facilis et perexpedita defensio (Cic. de Finn. III. 11, i.q. hujus 
rei). (Haec similitudo, something like this.) 



278 LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§315 



Obs. Concerning the employment of a superfluous demonstrative 
pronoun after parenthetical sentences, and with the particle qvidem, 
see § 489. 

315. a. The relative pronoun corresponds in gender and num- 
ber to the substantive (or word used substantively) to which it 
refers. If it refers to several words, it is put in the plural, although 
each of them may be in the singular : if the words are of different 
gender, the rule in § 214, b, is followed ; e.g. : — 

Grandes natu matres et parvuli liberi, qvorum utrorumqve 
aetas misericordiam nostram reqvirit (Cic. Yerr. V. 49). Otium 
atqve divitiae, qvae prima mortales putant (Sail. Cat. 36). Eae 
fruges atqve fructus, qvos terra gignit (Cic. N. D. II. 14; qvos 
being referred to the nearest word) . In conformity also with § 214, c, 
a neuter relative may be subjoined to the names of several inanimate 
objects of the same gender (masc. or fern.) : Fortunam nemo ab in- 
constantia et temeritate sejunget, qvae (which qualities) digna 
certe non sunt deo (Cic. N". D. III. 24). (Summa et doctoris 
auctoritas est et urbis, qvorum alter te scientia augere potest, 
altera exemplis, Id. Off. I. 1, according to § 214, b, Obs.) 

Obs. 1. If a common and a proper name of different genders are com- 
bined, e.g. flumen Rhenus, the relative may agree with either : flumen 
Rhenus, qvi agrum Helvetiorum a Germanis dividit (Cses. B. G. I. 
2). Ad flumen Scaldem, qvod influit in Mosam (Id. ib. VI. 
33). 

Obs. 2. The substantive to which a relative pronoun refers is some- 
times repeated for the sake of perspicuity or emphasis, or even quite 
superfluously : Erant omnino itinera duo, qvibus itineribus domo 
exire poterant (Caes. B. G. I. 6). Tan turn bellum, tam diuturnum 
tarn longe lateqve dispersum, qvo bello omnes gentes ac nationes 
premebantur (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 12). (Illius temporis mini venit 
in mentem, qvo die, citato reo, mihi dicendum sit, Id. Div. in Caec. 
13). x 

• b. A relative which refers, not to a single word, but to the whole 
predicate or the entire contents of a proposition, is put in the 
neuter : — 

Sapientes soli, qvod est proprium divitiarum, contenti sunt 
rebus suis (Cic. Par. VI. 3). In this case, id qvod is often used for 

1 [In the following example of this kind the relative precedes the demonstrative clause : 
Ut, qvae religio C. Mario, clarissimo viro, non fuerat, qvo minus C. Glau- 
ciam, de qvo nihil nominatim erat decretum, praetoreni occideret, ea nos 
religione in privato P. Lentulo puniendo liberaremur (Cic. in Cat. III. 6>., 



§ 317 DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 279 

qvod : Si a vobis, id qvod non spero, deserar, tamen animo non 
deficiam (Id. Rose. Am. 4). 1 The relative proposition is usually 
inserted before the predicate to which it refers. 

c. The attraction spoken of in § 313, between a demonstrative em- 
ployed indefinitely, and the substantive following, holds good also with 
the relative ; Qvae apud alios iracundia dicitur, ea in imperio 
superbia atqve crudelitas appellatur (Sail. Cat. 51, what among 
others — ) . 

§ 316. If a relative which refers to a substantive going before 
has another substantive connected with it by means of the verb 
sum, or one of the verbs which signify to name, to esteem, the num- 
ber and gender of the relative may be accommodated either to the 
substantive which precedes, or that which follows: — 

Darius ad eum locum, qvem Amanicas Pylas vocant, pervenit 
(Curt. III. 20) . Thebae ipsae, qvod Boeotiae caput est, in magno 
tumultu erant (Liv. XLII. 44) . 2 The last is done when an observa- 
tion is appended to a word already defined (a definite person or thing) : 
Cn. Pompejo, qvod imperii populi Romani lumen fuit, exstincto, 
interfectus est patris simillimus films (Cic. Phil. V. 14). Justa 
gloria, qvi est fructus verae virtutis honestissimus (Id. in Pis. 24). 
If, on the contrary, the idea is only defined by the relative clause, the 
relative, for the most part, agrees with the preceding word ; Flumen 
qvod appellatur Tamesis (Cses. B. G. V. 11), a river, the river. 

Obs. In some few instances, the relative, even in the circumstances 
just described, agrees with the word which follows : e.g. Animal hoc 
providum, acutum, plenum rationis et consilii, qvem vocamus 
hominem (Cic. Legg. I. 7). (Ex perturbationibus morbi con- 
ficiuntur, qvae vocant illi voGr^axa, Id. Tusc. IV. 10, and Alterum 
est cohibere motus animi turbatos, qvos Graeci nddrj nominant, 
Id. Off. II. 5.) 

§ 317. In the construction of a pronoun, more regard is sometimes 
had to the sense of the word to which it refers than to its grammatical 
form. 

a. A relative often agrees with the personal pronoun which is em- 
bodied in a possessive, the genitive of the personal pronoun being 
represented by the possessive : Vestra, qvi cum summa integritate 



1 [Magna, id qvod necesse erat accidere, perturbatio facta est (Caes. B. G. 
IV. 29).] 

2 [Ea, qvae secuta est, nieme, qvi fuit annus Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso 
Coss. (Cses. B. G. IV. 1).] 



280 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 318 

vixistis, hoc maxime interest (Cic. pro Sail. 28) . Vestra consilia 
accusantur, qvi mihi summum honorem et maximum negotium 
imposuistis (Sail. Jug. 85). 

b. Sometimes a pronoun in the plural follows a substantive in the 
singular, the thought being extended to a number of individual objects : 
Constituerant, ut eo signo cetera multitudo conjurationis suum 
qvisqve negotium exseqveretur. Ea (sc. negotia) divisa hoc 
modo dicebantur, &c. (Sail. Cat. 43) . L. Cantilius, scriba ponti- 
ficis, qvos (sc. scribas pontificum) nunc minores pontifices appel- 
lant (Liv. XXTT. 57). 

c. After collective substantives in the singular, the relative sometimes 
follows in the plural, having reference to the several individuals : Caesar 
eqvitatum omnem, qvem ex omni provincia coactum habebat, 
praemittit, qvi videant, qvas in partes hostes iter faciant (Caes. 
B. G. I. 15). (But not in an explanatory parenthesis.) Ex eo genere 
and ex eo numero are often followed by the relative in the plural, and 
in the gender of the individual persons or things mentioned : Unus ex 
eo numero, qvi ad caedem parati erant (Sail. Jug. 35) . Amicitia 
est ex eo genere, qvae prosunt (Cic. Finn. III. 21). 

d. To a figurative appellation of a man, in which the natural gender is 
departed from, the relative is often added in the natural gender, the 
figure being dropped : Duo importuna prodigia, qvos improbitas 
tribuno plebis constrictos addixerat (Cic. pro Sest. 17) . 

Ojbs. 1. Other deviations from the general rule are only inaccuracies 
of language ; e.g. Vejens bellum ortum est, qvibus Sabini arma con- 
junxerant (Liv. II. 53), as if he had said bellum cum Vejentibus. 

Obs. 2. Here it may also be observed, that after a demonstrative or 
indefinite pronoun unde may be put instead of a qvo (qva) and a 
qvibus, and qvo instead of ad qvem (qvam, qvod) and ad qvos 
(qvas, qvae) : e.g. is, unde petitur, the person from whom a thing is 
{judicially) demanded, the defendant. Erat nemo, unde discerem 
(Cic. Cat. M. 4) Homo et domi nobilis et apud eos, qvo se con- 
tulit, gratiosus (Id. Yerr. IY. 18) . So likewise qva sometimes stands 
for per qvae, qvos : e.g. ex his oppidis, qva ducebantur (Id. Yerr. 
Y. 26) ; and ubi for in qvo. 

§ 318. The relative pronoun may be the subject or object of the 
proposition which is formed with it, or may stand in any other rela- 
tion to it, and take the form or case which indicates its relation. 

The relative pronoun represents the three persons ; and if it is 
the subject, the verb agrees in person with the relative : — 

Vos, qvi affuistis, testes esse poteritis, you, who were present. 



§ 320 DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 281 

On the other hand, — 

Ii nostrum, or ii vestrum, qvi affuerunt, testes esse possunt. 

After is also, as a predicate noun agreeing with a subject of the 
first or second person, the relative takes the same person : — 
Non is sum, qvi glorier, one who boasts, 

§ 319. An indefinite substantive, which the relative proposition 
defines, is sometimes drawn into the relative proposition, taking the 
same case with the relative: the relative proposition then precedes 
the demonstrative: — 

Qvae cupiditates a natura proficiscuntur, facile explentur sine 
ulla injuria (Cic. Finn. I. 16), i.q. eae cupiditates, qvae. Ad 
Caesarem qvam misi epistolam, ejus exemplum fugit me tibi 
mittere (Cic. ad Att. XIII. 51, i.q. ejus epistolae qvam) . In qvem 
primum Heneti Trojaniqve egressi sunt locum, Troja vocatur 
(Liv. I. 1). 

Obs. The poets do this also where the relative proposition follows 
the demonstrative, or at any rate the demonstrative pronoun : Poeta id 
sibi negoti credidit solum dari, Populo ut placerent, qvas fecisset 
fabulas (Ter. Andr. prol. 3). Illi, scripta qvibus comoedia prisca 
viris est, hoc stabant, hoc sunt imitandi (Hor. Sat. I. 10, 16). 
Qvis non malarum, qvas amor curas habet, Haec inter oblivis- 
citur (Id. Ep. 2, 37, i.q. malarum curarum, qvas — ). It is a still 
greater irregularity, when a substantive that should stand in the nomina- 
tive takes the case of the relative, and yet retains its place before it : 
Urbem, qvam statuo, vestra est (Virg. iEn. I. 573), for urbs, 
qvam. 

§ 320. When an antecedent noun with its relative clause is, in 
idea and form, new to the main proposition, and qualifies the same, 
or a single word of the same, after the manner of a noun in appo- 
sition in English, it is almost always drawn into the relative 
clause : — 

Peregrinum frumentum, qvae sola alimenta ex insperato for- 
tuna dedit, ab ore rapitur (Liv. II. 35) , the only nourishment which. 
Santones non longe a Tolosatium finibus absunt, qvae civitas est 
in provincia (Caes. B. G. I. 10). Firmi et constantes amici 
eligendi sunt, cujus generis est magna penuria (Cic. Lael. 17), a 
class which is very rare. (We rarely find a construction like the follow- 
ing : Dictator dictus est Q. Servilius Priscus, vir, cujus provi- 
dentiam in republica multis aliis tempestatibus ante experta 
civitas erat, Liv. IV. 46). 



282 LATIN GRAMMAR. §321 

Obs. If a relative proposition is annexed to a superlative, to show with 
what limitation the superlative must be understood, the adjective is placed 
in the relative proposition : Themistocles noctu de servis suis, qvem 
habuit fidelissimum, ad Xerxem misit (Corn. Them. 4) , the most faith- 
ful that he had. Agamemnon Dianae devoverat, qvod in suo regno 
pulcherrimum natum essetillo anno (Cic. Off. III. 25), the most beau- 
tiful thing that should be born. M. Popillius in tumulo, qvem prox- 
imum castris Gallorum capere potuit, vallum ducere coepit (Li v. 
VII. 23) . Qvanta maxima potest celeritate, with the greatest speed 
he can, § 310, Obs. 3. At other times, too, when a relative proposition 
has a special reference to the adjective connected with a substantive, the 
adjective may be drawn into the relative proposition : P. Scipioni ex 
multis diebus, qvos in vita celeberrimos laetissimosqve vidit, ille 
dies clarissimus fuit (Cic. Lael. 3). (Where we employ the super- 
lative in apposition in English, the comparative with a negation is used 
in Latin, according to § 304, Obs. 1.) 

§ 321. If the relative pronoun refers to a demonstrative which 
stands alone, the latter is often put after the relative proposition : — 

Male se res habet, qvum, qvod virtute effici debet, id tentatur 
pecunia (Cic. Off. II. 6). 

It is often entirely omitted when no emphasis is laid upon it, 
mostly when it is a nominative or an accusative, especially when 
the relative stands in the same case in which the demonstrative 
would have stood : — 

Maximum ornamentum amicitiae tollit, qvi ex ea tollit vere- 
cundiam (Cic. Lael. 22). Atilium sua manu spargentem semen, 
qvi missi erant, convenerunt (Id. Rose. Am. 18). Qvem neqve 
gloria neqve pericula excitant, frustra hortere (Sail. Cat. 58), it 
were in vain to urge him. Inter omnes philosophos constat, qvi 
unam habeat, omnes habere virtutes (Cic. Off. II. 10; eum, the 
subject, being omitted). Minime miror, qvi insanire occipiunt ex 
injuria (Ter. Ad. II. 1, 43, eos omitted). Haud facile emergunt, 
qvorum virtutibus obstat res angusta domi (Juv. III. 164). The 
same omission of the demonstrative pronoun takes place where the sub- 
stantive is drawn into the relative proposition according to § 319 ; see 
there the first and third example. Qvae prima innocentis mini de- 
fensio oblata est, suscepi (Cic. pro Sull. 33). 

Obs. In the other cases, which are not so easily supplied from the 
context, the demonstrative is sometimes left out, if it would have to 
stand in the same case as the relative : Qvibus bestiis erat is cibus, 
ut alius generis bestiis vescerentur, aut vires natura dedit aut 



§ 323 DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 283 

celeritatem (Cic. N. D. II. 48) ; Piso parum erat, a qvibus debu- 
erat, adjutus (Id. Phil. I. 4, i.q. ab iis, a qvibus) ; otherwise but 
seldom: e.g. in the dative in certain legal expressions (Ejus pecuniae, 
qvi volet, petitio esto = ei, qvi volet) ; or where qvi approaches to 
the signification of siqvis : Xerxes praemium proposuit, qvi novam 
voluptatem invenisset (Cic. Tusc. Y. 7). If the demonstrative is 
emphatic (to give prominence to a particular person, thing, or class) , it 
can never be omitted ; A me ii contenderunt, qvi apud me et ami- 
citia et dignitate plurimum possunt (Cic. Rose. Am. 1). 

§ 322. The nominative or accusative of an indefinite pronoun 
(one, some one, something) is left out before the relative, if persons 
or things of some particular nature or destination are spoken of in 
the most general terms ; eg.: — 

Sunt, qvi ita dicant. Non est facile reperire, qvi haec credant 
Habeo, qvod dicam, something to say. Misi, qvi viderent, some, to 
see. But sunt qvidam, qvi, there are certain persons who (compare 
§§ 363 and 365). 

§ 323. a. If two relative propositions are combined and referred 
to the same word, and if the relative which they contain is in dif- 
ferent cases (qvem rex delegerat et qvi populo gratus erat), the 
second relative is sometimes omitted and supplied from the first, 
but only in the nominative and accusative : — 

Eamne rationem seqvare, qva tecum ipse et cum tuis utare, 
profiteri autem et in medium proferre non audeas? (Cic. Finn. 
II. 23), but which you do not venture. Bocchus cum peditibus, 
qvos Volux, filius ejus, adduxerat, neqve in priore pugna affuerant 
(i.q. et qvi in pr. p. non affuerant), postremam Romanorum aciem 
invadunt (Sail. Jug. 101). 

b. Sometimes, if the relative ought to stand first in the nominative 
and then in some other case, the demonstrative is takes the place of the 
second relative ; Omnes turn fere, qvi nee extra hanc urbem vix- 
erant, nee eos aliqva barbaries domestica infuscaverat, recte 
loqvebantur (Cic. Brut. 74). 

Obs. 1. If the demonstrative and relative are governed by the same' 
preposition, and the same verb is understood in the relative proposition 
which is expressed in the demonstrative, the preposition may be omitted 
before the relative : In eadem causa (position) sumus qva vos. Me 
tuae litterae nunqvam in tantam spem induxerunt, qvantam 
aliorum (Cic. ad Att. III. 19). 

Obs. 2. If a relative which refers to a demonstrative pronoun (with- 
out a substantive) ought properly to be governed by an infinitive to be 



284 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 324 

supplied from the verb in the leading proposition, and put in the accusa- 
tive, it is sometimes (by attraction) put in the case of the demonstrative ; 
e.g. Raptim, qvibus qvisqve poterat, elatis, penates tectaqve 
relinqventes exibant (Liv. I. 29), i.q. elatis iis, qvae qvisqve 
poterat efferre. 

§ 324. a. Talis, tantus, and tot, are followed in comparisons by the 
corresponding relative adjectives qvalis, qvantus, qvot ; of which qvalis 
and qvantus, in gender and number, agree either with the same sub- 
stantive: Nemo ab dis immortalibus tot et tantas res tacitus 
optare ausus est, qvot et qvantas di immortales ad Pompejum 
detulerunt (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 16) ; or with another substantive 
which is compared with the first in character or magnitude : Non habet 
tantam pecuniam, qvantos sumptus facit. Amicum habere talem 
volunt, qvales ipsi esse non possunt (Cic. Lsel. 22) . (Tantundem, 
qvantum: Voluntatem municipii tantidem, qvanti fidem suam 
fecit, Id. Rose. Am. 39.) 

b. Qvi agrees with the demonstrative idem in gender and number, 
but its case will be the same or different, according to its construction 
in the relative proposition : lidem abeunt, qvi venerant (Cic. Finn. 
IV. 3), they go away just as they came. Bandem Romani causam 
belli cum Boccho habent qvam cum Jugurtha (Sail. Jug. 81). 
Pisander eodem, qvo Alcibiades, sensu erat (Corn. Ale. 5). In 
eadem sum sententia, qvae tibi placet (qvam tibi semper placuisse 
scio) . If qvi is to stand in the same case as idem, and have the same 
verb repeated or understood, ac may be substituted for qvi: Est 
animus erga te idem ac fuit (Ter. Heaut. II. 2, 24) = qvi fuit 
Ex iisdem rebus argumenta sumpsi, ac tu ( = ex qvibus tu) . 



PART SECOND. 

ON THE NATURE AND MODE OF THE ASSERTION, AND THE TIME 
OF THE THING ASSERTED. 

CHAPTER I. 

OF THE KINDS OF PROPOSITIONS, AND THE MOODS IN GENERAL. 

§ 325. A Proposition is either an independent and leading propo- 
sition, which is asserted simply by itself : e.g. Titius currit ; or a 
subordinate proposition, which is not asserted by itself, but appended 
to another proposition, in order to complete and define the whole 
of it or some particular word in it : Titius currit, ut sudet. The 
leading proposition is sometimes incomplete without the addition 
of the subordinate : e.g. Sunt qvi haec dicant. Hon sum tarn 
imprudens qvam tu putas. 

A leading proposition may have several which are subordinate ; e.g. 
Qvum hostes appropinqvarent, imperator pontem interscindi 
jussit, ut eos transitu prohiberet. A subordinate proposition may 
again have another subordinate proposition attached to it ; e.g. Labo- 
randum est in juventute, ut, qvum senectus advenerit, honeste 
otio frui possimus. 

A main proposition with its subordinate proposition (or proposi- 
tions) forms a compound proposition, which, like a leading propo- 
sition standing alone, has a complete sense, at which the discourse 
can break off. 

§ 326. Subordinate propositions are connected with the leading 
proposition, either by a conjunction {conjunctional propositions) : 
e.g. Haec scio, qvia adfui ; or by a relative (pronoun or adverb) 
(relative propositions) : e.g. Omnes, qvi adfuerunt, haec sciunt ; 
or by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, or particle), (depend- 
ent interrogative propositions) : e.g. Qvaero, unde haec scias ; or in 
a peculiar form with the verb in the infinitive (infinitive proposi- 
tions, the accusative with the infinitive) : e.g. intelligis, me haec 
scire. 



286 LATIN GRAMMAR. §327 

Obs. 1. The relative subordinate propositions explain or define an 
idea of the leading proposition, but may, themselves, also express the 
same idea (by a periphrasis) . The other subordinate propositions rep- 
resent either the subject of the leading proposition (subjective proposi- 
tions) : e.g. Qvod domum emisti, gratum mihi est; or the object 
of the verb, or of some other word in the leading proposition (objec- 
tive propositions) : e.g. Video te currere ; operam dabo, ut res 
perficiatur ; or they denote different circumstances connected with it, so 
that they stand in relations similar to those which are expressed by the 
ablative of a substantive or by prepositions. But the difference of the 
grammatical form corresponds only in part to this division. The infini- 
tive propositions represent either a subject or an object (§§ 394-398, a), 
the dependent interrogative propositions an object ; in other cases, an 
object is represented by a conjunctional proposition (§ 371-376). One 
kind of conjunctional propositions (with qvod to denote an existing rela- 
tion, § 398, b) may either represent a subject or object, or be used in 
pointing out a circumstance (in eo qvod, in that) . The rest of the con- 
junctional subordinate propositions, which express circumstances, are 
divided according to the different ideas, in relation to which they define 
the leading proposition, into final (denoting a purpose), consecutive 
(denoting a consequence) , causal, conditional, concessive, temporal, and 
modal (propositions of time and mood), and comparative propositions, 
which are denoted by particular conjunctions. In so far as the temporal 
and modal conjunctions are relative adverbs of time and mood (qvam, 
of degree), the temporal and modal propositions have an affinity to the 
relative. 

Obs. 2. When a conjunctional proposition, containing a reason, con- 
trast (although), concession, time, or condition, naturally precedes the 
main proposition, it is called the protasis, and the main proposition is 
denominated the apodosis. 

Obs. 3. Many propositions refer by means of (demonstrative) ad- 
verbs to other propositions, of which they express the reason, conse- 
quence, &c, but are stated entirely independently as leading propositions ; 
e.g. propositions with nam, itaqve, &c. 

§ 327. A relative proposition often contains not merely a peri- 
phrasis or a remark simply subjoined, but stands in a relation to 
the leading proposition, which is otherwise expressed by conjunc- 
tions, denoting the design (who was to = that he), the reason 
(who = since he), &c. This is expressed by the mood of the verb. 
See § 363 and the following. 

Obs. Concerning the use of the relative instead of the demonstrative 
to connect a proposition with that which precedes it, see, in the chapter 



§ 330 PROPOSITIONS AND MOODS IN GENERAL. 287 

on the combinations of propositions, § 448. Concerning other peculiari- 
ties in the construction of relative propositions, see §§ 445 and 446. 

§ 328. Several propositions may be arranged one after the other, 
without standing in the relation of leading and subordinate propo- 
sitions, by the aid of copulative, disjunctive, or antithetical conjunc- 
tions, and sometimes even without a conjunction (co-ordinate propo- 
sitions) : — 

Et mini consilium tuum placet et pater id vehementer probat. 
Mihi consilium tuum placet, sed pater id improbat. (Ego con- 
silium probo, pater improbat.) (Neqve cur tu hoc consilium tarn 
vehementer probes, neqve cur pater tantopere improbet, in- 
telligo. The co-ordinate propositions are, therefore, either all leading 
propositions, or all subordinate propositions of one leading propo^ 
sition. 

§ 329. The proposition is conceived and expressed by the speaker 
in different ways with reference to the actual existence of the thing 
stated. Its contents are either stated as something that actually is 
or takes place : e.g. Titius currit ; or as the will of the speaker : 
e.g. curre, Titi; or only as a conception: e.g. Titius currit, ut 
sudet. (It is not said that Titius perspires, but his perspiring is 
only conceived of and expressed as a design.) 

The different ways in which a proposition is conceived, and be- 
sides this the relation of the subordinate to the leading proposition, 
are denoted in Latin by the three personal and definite moods, the 
Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive, in which the verb is re- 
ferred to a definite subject (oratio finita). The relation of the 
subordinate proposition may also in some cases be expressed in 
Latin by using the verb in the indefinite form, the infinitive (oratio 
infinita). 

Obs. By means of the participle, the substance of a subordinate 
proposition is expressed as a quality of the subject of the leading propo- 
sition. 

§ 330. Subordinate propositions, when co-ordinate with each other, 
stand in the same relation to the leading proposition, and have the 
same mood (but not always the same tense). 

Obs. 1. In one single case, however, two subordinate propositions in 
combination have different moods, because their contents are differently 
conceived (non qvod — sed qvia). See § 357, b. 



288 LATIN GRAMMAR. §332 

Obs, 2. Of two leading propositions which are combined, the one may 
sometimes be asserted unconditionally (in the indicative), the other 
doubtingly and hypothetically, or by way of concession (in the subjunc- 
tive) : e.g. neqve nego neqve affirmare ausim. Neqve divelli a 
Catilina possunt et pereant sane, qvoniam sunt ita multi, ut eos 
career capere non possit (Cic. in Cat. II. 10). 



CHAPTER H. 

THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES. 

§ 331. The Indicative mood is that in which a thing is simply 
asserted (affirmatively or negatively) or a question simply asked. 
It is therefore used in all propositions, both leading and subordinate, 
where no particular rules require another mood : — 

Pater venit. Pater non venit. Num pater veniet? Qvando ve- 
nies? Haec etsi nota sunt, commemorari tamen debent, qvod ad 
summam rei pertinent. Qvod domum emisti, gratum mini est. 
Qvoniam tibi placet, desistam. 

Obs. An independent (direct) question is one which constitutes an 
independent leading proposition. It expresses a wish that the whole 
proposition thus interrogatively expressed should either be confirmed 
(as a matter of fact) or denied (Venitne pater ? ) , or that a single idea, 
expressed by an interrogative pronoun or adverb, should be defined. 
(Concerning the interrogative particles, see §§ 450-453. Quite distinct 
from this is the indirect or dependent question, which forms a subordi- 
nate proposition, denoting the object of a proposition or idea ; e.g. qvae- 
sivi, num pater venisset. See § 356. 

§ 332. It is to be particularly noticed, that in a conditional sen- 
tence (in which a thing is or is not, in case another thing is or is 
not) both propositions (the leading proposition which is qualified, 
and the subordinate which expresses the qualification) are put in 
the indicative, if the condition (that a thing is or is not, in case 
another thing is or is not) is expressed simply ; i.e. without any 
qualification of its meaning : — 

Si Deus mundum creavit, conservat etiam. Nisi hoc ita est, 
frustra laboramus. Si nullum jam ante consilium de morte Sex. 
Roscii inieras, hie nuntius ad te minime omnium pertinebat 
(Cic. Rose. Am. 34). Si nihil aliud fecerunt, satis praemii ha- 
bent. 



§ 334 THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES. 289 

Obs. Such a sentence denotes only that such is the relation which 
obtains between the two propositions ; but nothing is stated of the actual 
truth of their contents, when taken singly. The indicative is also re- 
tained when it is said that a thing holds equally good under different 
conditions, which is expressed by sive — sive : Mala consvetudo est 
contra deos disputandi, sive ex animo id fit sive simulate (Cic. 
"N. D. II. 67). Hoc loco libentissime utor, sive qvid mecum ipse 
cogito, sive aliqvid scribo aut lego (Cic. Legg. II. 1) . 

§ 333. The thing asserted is either simply referred to one of the 
three leading tenses, the present, past, or future, or stated (medi- 
ately, relatively) with reference to a certain past or future point of 
time, as being at that time present (contemporary with it), or past, 
or future (praesens in praeterito, praeteritum in praeterito, fu- 
turum in praeterito ; praesens in futuro, praeteritum in futuro, 
futurum in futuro). These relations of time are expressed partly 
by the simple tenses of the verbs (and by the passive compounds 
which correspond to the simple active forms), partly by a peri- 
phrasis by means of the future participle and sum, as follows: — 



Present. 


Perfect. 


Future. 


scribo 


scripsi 


scribam 


In Praeterito. scribebam, 


scrips eram, 


scripturus eram (fui) 


I was writing (at that time). 


I had writ- 


1 was (at that time) on 




ten. 


the point of writing. 


In Futuro. scribam, 


scripsero, I 


scripturus ero, I shall 


I shall (then') write. 


shall have 


(then) be on the point 




written. 


of writing. 



Besides these a future thing is designated as now at hand (and 
referred to the present) in a particular way, by the periphrasis 
scripturus sum. 

§ 334. The Present declares that which now is, comprising also 
what happens and exists at every time : e.g. Deus mundum con- 
servat ; and what is thought of as present, such as opinions and 
expressions in books, which are still extant : e.g. Zeno aliter judi- 
cat. Praeclare hunc locum Cicero tractat in libris de natura 
deorum. Sometimes the present is used instead of the perfect in 
narrations. See § 336. 

Obs. The present is often used of that which has endured for some 
time, and still continues : Tertium jam annum hie sumus. An- 
num jam audis Cratippum (Cic. Off. I. 1) ; especially with jamdiu 

19 



290 LATIN GEAMMAR. § 335 

and jamdudum: Jamdiu ignoro, qvid agas (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 9). 
In bonis hominibus ea, qvam jamdudum tractamus, stabilitas 
amicitiae confirmari potest (Id. Lasl. 22). 

§ 335. a. The Perfect is used in Latin in relating and giving 
information of past occurrences both in continuous history and iso- 
lated notices of events (the historical perfect 1 ) : — 

Caesar Galliam subegit. Illo anno duae res memorabiles ac- 
ciderunt. Hostes qvum Romanorum trepidationem animadver- 
tissent, subito procurrerunt et ordines perturbarunt. L. Lucullus 
multos annos Asiae provinciae praefuit (Cic. Acad. II. 1). Qvum 
(.at the time when) hoc proelium factum est, Caesar aberat. 

b. The perfect is also used to express a thing as done and com- 
pleted, presenting a contrast to the present moment, at which the 
thing is no longer spoken of as continuing (the perfect absolute? 
definite): e.g. Pater jam venit (is already come). Is mOS usqve 
ad hoc tempus permansit. Fuimus Troes, fait Ilium (Virg. Mn. 
II. 325), Ilium lias been, i.q. is no more. (Perii ! it is all over 
ivith me.) 

Obs. 1. If a thing be spoken of that is repeatedly or customarily 
done, the perfect is used in subordinate propositions, which express 
time, condition, or place (after qvum, qvoties, simulac, si, ubi, and 
indefinite relative expressions), if the action of the subordinate is to be 
supposed as antecedent to that of the leading proposition. (In Eng- 
lish, the present is generally used.) Qvum ad villain veni, hoc 
ipsum, nihil agere, me delectat (Cic. de Or. II. 16), in English, 
when I come. Qvum fortuna reflavit, afiligimur (Id. Off. II. 6). 
Si ad luxuriam etiam libidinum intemperantia accessit, duplex 
malum est (Id. ib. I. 34). Qvocunqve aspexisti, ut furiae, sic tuae 
tibi occurrunt injuriae (Id. Par. 2). 3 (If the leading proposition is in 
the preterite (imperfect) , the subordinate is put in the pluperfect. See 
§ 338, a, Obs.) 

Obs. 2. Concerning the perfect after postqvam, and similar particles, 
see § 338, b. 

Obs. 3. The perfect is sometimes found in the poets (in imitation of 
the Greek aorist) , instead of the present, to express a thing that is custom- 
arily done (and has already often taken place) : Rege incolumi mens 



1 In Greek the aorist is used in this signification. 

2 This is the same as the Greek perfect. 

3 In books the future perfect is sometimes improperly substituted for the perfect ; e.g. 
accesserit for accessit. 



§ 337 THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES. 291 

omnibus una est ; amisso rupere fidem constructaqve mella di- 
ripuere ipsae (Virg. Georg. IV. 212), of the bees. 

Obs. 4. On the use of the perfects odi, memini, novi, in the signifi- 
cation of the present, see the Rules for the Inflection of Words, § 161 
and § 142. (Svevi, consvevi, I am accustomed.) 

§ 336. In lively, connected narrative, past events are often spoken 
of as present, the present tense being employed instead of the per- 
fect (the historical present) : — 

Ubi id Verres audivit, Didorum ad se vocavit ac pocula popos- 
cit. Ille respondet, se Lilybaei non habere, Melitae reliqvisse. 
Turn iste continuo mittit homines certos Melitam; scribit ad 
qvosdam Melitenses, ut ea vasa perqvirant (Cic. Verr. IV. 18). 
Exspectabant omnes, qvo tandem Verres progressurus esset, 
qvum repente proripi hominem ac deligari jubet (Id. ib. V. 62). 

Obs. 1. The poets sometimes use the historical present somewhat 
strangely in noticing a single event, and in relative propositions : Tu 
prima furentem his, germana, malis oneras atqve objicis hosti 
(Virg. 2En. II. 518), for onerasti and objecisti. Cratera antiqvum 
(tibi dabo), qvem dat Sidonia Dido (Id. ib. IX. 266), for dedit. 

Obs. 2. When the participle dum denotes what happens while some- 
thing else happens, and especially what happens, because something else 
happens (being occasioned by it) , it is usually constructed with the present, 
although the action be past, and the perfect (sometimes the pluperfect) 
used in the leading proposition : Dum haec in colloqvio geruntur. 
Caesari nuntiatum est, eqvites Ariovisti propius accedere (Cass. 
B. G. I. 46). Dum obseqvor adolescentibus, me senem esse 
oblitus sum (Cic. de Or. II. 4) . Ita mulier dum pauca mancipia 
retinere vult, fortunas omnes perdidit (Id. Div. in Csec. 17). 
Dum elephanti trajiciuntur, interim Hannibal eqvites qvingentos 
ad castra Romana miserat speculatum (Liv. XXI. 29). Yet the 
perfect may also be used (of an action) , or the imperfect (of a condi- 
tion. See § 337) : Dum Aristo et Pyrrho in una virtute sic omnia 
esse voluerunt, ut earn rerum selectione exspoliarent, virtutem 
ipsam sustulerunt (Cic. Finn. II. 13). Dum Sulla in aliis rebus 
erat occupatus, erant interea qvi suis vulneribus mederentur (Id. 
Rose. Am. 32) . When dum signifies as long as, it never has the pres- 
ent, except of actually present time ; Hoc feci, dum licuit (Cic. Phil. 
III. 13). 

§ 337. The Imperfect (praesens in praeterito) is used when we 
transfer ourselves in idea into a past time, and describe what was 
then present. It is therefore employed of states existing at a particu- 



292 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 337 

lar time, or actions which were talcing place at a given time (still going 
on and not yet completed, while something else was happening), or 
of that which was customary at a certain time (with a certain per- 
son or thing), or was often repeated. (On the other hand, it is not 
used of isolated occurrences or in general historical statements of 
what formerly took place, or went on in a certain way, even in 
speaking of a thing that continued for a long time), ftvo tempore 
Philippus Graeciam evertit (an occurrence) ; etiam turn Athenae 
gloria litterarum et artium florebant (condition at the time speci- 
fied ; but Athenae multa secula litterarum et artium gloria flo- 
ruerunt (notice of a fact) ; Caesar consilium mutavit (relation of 
a fact) ; videbat enim, nihil tarn exiguis copiis confici posse 
(representation of his views at the time ; vidit enim would signify 
for he came to the conclusion). 

Regulus Carthaginem rediit neqve eum caritas patriae retinuit 

(notice of what did, and did not happen). Neqve ignorabat (i.e. at 
the time when he was returning, &c), se ad exqvisita supplicia profi- 
cisci, sed jusjurandum conservandum putabat (Cic. Off. III. 27). 
Qvum Verres ad aliqvod oppidum venerat, eadem lectica usqve 
in cubiculum deferebatur (Cic. Verr. V. 11). Romae qvotannis 
bini consules creabantur (custom ; but qvamdiu Roma libera fuit, 
semper bini consules fuerunt, notice of a fact) . Archytas nullam 
capitaliorem pestem qvam voluptatem corporis dicebat a natura 
datam (Cic. Cat. M. 12) ; also, dicere solebat ; on the contrary, di- 
cere solitus est, had a habit of saying. 1 In Graecia musici floru- 
erunt, discebantqve id omnes (Id. Tusc. I. 2) , and it ivas the custom 
that all learned music. Dicebat melius qvam scripsit Hortensius 
(Id. Or. 38), H. spoke better, i.q. was accustomed to speak better, than he 
has ivritten, than he shoivs himself in his written speeches. On the other 
hand, qvam scribebat, than he was accustomed to write. Janua heri 
tres horas patuit, but heri, qvum praeterii, janua patebat. Pu- 
tavi, I have thought, or / adopted the opinion ; putabam, I was of 
opinion. 

Obs. 1. An action that was on the point of happening at a certain 
time (futurum in praeterito) is sometimes represented, by the imperfect, 
as already begun and proceeding ; Hujus deditionis ipse, qvi dedeba- 
tur, svasor et auctor fuit (Cic. Off. III. 30), who teas thereby deliv- 
ered up, whose surrender was in question. The imperfect, when applied 



1 [The beginner -will do well to notice, that the imperfect indicative in this sense is some- 
times expressed in English by the auxiliary would, which is never to be translated by the sub- 
junctive in Latin : Socrates would say, Socrates dicebat, or dicere solebat.] 



§ 338 THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES. 293 

to a thing that is spoken of as happening in time past, and not com- 
pletely finished, may sometimes be rendered, in English, by began to : 
Constitit utrumqve agmen et proelio sese expediebant (Liv. XXI. 
46). Themistocli qvidam pollicitus est, se artem ei memoriae, 
qvae turn primum proferebatur, traditurum (Cic. Acad. II. 1). 

Obs. 2. Connected examples of 'the use and interchange of the per- 
fect, the historical present, the imperfect, and the historical infinitive 
(according to § 392), in narrative and description, may be seen, in Cic. 
Verr. IV. 18 ; and in Livy, III. 36-38. 

§ 338. a. The Pluperfect (praeteritum in praeterito) is used of 
that which had already happened at a certain time past, or at the 
time when a certain action now past took place. 

Dixerat hoc ille, qvum puer nuntiavit, venire ad eum Laelium 
(Cic. R. P. I. 12). Qvum ego ilium vidi, jam consilium mutave- 
rat. 

Obs. With leading propositions in the imperfect of customary and 
repeated action, those subordinate propositions are put in the pluper- 
fect which are in the perfect when the leading proposition is in the pres- 
ent, according to § 335, b, Obs. 1 : Qvum ver esse coeperat, Verres 
dabat se labori atqve itineribus (Cic. Verr. Y. 10). Alcibiades, 
simul ac se remiserat, luxuriosus, libidinosus, intemperans repe- 
riebatur (Corn. Ale. 1). Si a perseqvendo hostes deterrere ne- 
qviverant, disjectos ab tergo circumveniebant (Sail. Jug. 50). 
(Compare § 359, on the subjunctive, in such subordinate proposi- 
tions.) 

b. When it is stated that two actions immediately followed each 
other, the perfect is used after the conjunctions posteaqyam or 
postqvam, ubi, ut, simul atqve or ac (or simply simul), ut primum, 
qvum primum, as soon as ; inasmuch as we merely designate both 
actions as past, without expressing their mutual relation by the 
verb : — 

Posteaqvam victoria constituta est ab armisqve recessimus, 
erat Roscius Romae freqvens (Cic. Rose. Am. 6). Pompejus, ut 
eqvitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit (Cses. B. C III. 94). 
Simulac primum Verri occasio visa est, consulem deseruit (Cic. 
Verr. I. 13). 

Obs. 1. Postqvam is put with the pluperfect when it is intended to 
denote, not something that ensued immediately, but a transaction that 
occurred after the lapse of some time : e.g. P. Africanus, posteaqvam 
bis consul et censor fuerat, L. Cottam in judicium vocavit (Cic. 



294 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 339 

Div. in Case. 21) ; especially when a definite interval is specified; e.g. 
Hannibal anno tertio postqvam domo profugerat, in Africam venit 
(Corn. Hann. 8). Post diem qvintum, qvam (§ 276, Obs. 6) bar- 
bari iterum male pugnaverant, legati a Boccho veniunt (Sail. 
Jug. 102) Otherwise, postqvam is rarely put with the pluperfect, — 
very rarely with the pluperfect subjunctive. 1 

Obs. 2. Postqvam, ubi, and ut are often put with the imperfect 
to show a state of things that had come on, — to show that some- 
thing occurred, or was accustomed to occur : Postqvam Eros e scena 
non modo sibilis, sed etiam convicio explodebatur, confugit in 
Roscii domum et disciplinam (Cic. Rose. Com. 11), he icas hissed 
off as often as he came on the stage) . Postqvam id difficilius visum 
est, neqve facultas perficiendi dabatur, ad Pompejum transierunt 
(Cses. B. C. III. 60), they found it difficult (a single fact), and there 
was no opportunity (state of things) . 

Obs. 3. When ubi and simulac are used of a repeated action, they 
take the pluperfect. See the Obs. on a. 

Obs. 4. After the particles mentioned in paragraph b, the historical 
present (§ 336) may also be employed, if the action is conceived of as 
prolonged during the occurrence of the other action ; Postqvam per- 
fugae murum arietibus feriri vident, aurum atqve argentum 
domum regiam comportant (Sail. Jug. 76) . 

Obs. 5. The particles anteqvam and priusqvam, before, and dum, 
donee, until, are used with the perfect indicative, not with the pluperfect: 
Anteqvam tuas legi litteras, hominem ire cupiebam (Cic. ad Att. 
II. 7), often expressed in English, before I had read your letter. His- 
pala non ante adolescentem dimisit, qvam fidem dedit, ab his 
sacris se temperaturum (Liv. XXXIX. 10). De comitiis, donee 
rediit Marcellus, silentium fuit (Liv. XXIII. 31). 2 (Concerning the 
subjunctive with these particles, see the following chapter, § 360.) 

Obs. 6. The pluperfect fueram sometimes stands in the poets, and in 
a few instances in other writers, instead of the imperfect eram: Nee 
satis id fuerat ; stultus qvoqve carmina feci (Ov. ex Pont. III. 3, 
37). In some other verbs, from some peculiarity of signification, the 
pluperfect may seem to be used instead of the imperfect: e.g. super- 
fueram, / had remained over ; consveveram, I had accustomed myself. 

§ 339. The Future (simple) denotes both a future action in gen- 
eral, and also that which will take place at a certain time to come 
(praesens in futuro) : Veniet pater. Illo tempore respublica 

1 The pluperfect indie, occurs Sail. Jug. 44; subjunctive, Cic. pro Leg. Man. 4. 

2 [(Petilini non ante expugnati sunt qvam vires ad ferenda arma dee- 
rant, Liv. XXIII. 30, of a state of things which had come on).] 



§ 339 THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES. 295 

florebit. (The distinction therefore which exists between the per- 
fect and imperfect as to the past, is not made with reference to the 
future.) 

Obs. 1. In English, the expression of the future is commonly omitted 
in subordinate propositions, if it is found in the leading proposition; but 
this omission may not take place in Latin : Naturam si seqvemur ducem 
numqvam aberrabimus (Cic. Off. I. 28) , in English, If ive follow. 
Profecto beati erimus, qvum, corporibus relictis, cupiditatum 
erimus expertes (Id. Tusc. I. 19). Hoc dum erimus in terris, 
erit caelesti vitae simile (Id. ib. I. 31). (Qvi adipisci veram 
gloriam volet, justitiae fungatur ofliciis (Id. Off. II. 13) ; where the 
futurity is indicated in the leading proposition by the exhortation.) 1 In 
English, too, the present is often used instead of the future in assur- 
ances and conjectures (e.g. he is coming in three days), a mode of 
speaking which is not usual in Latin, except where an action is referred 
to that is already partially commenced : Tuemini castra et defendite 
diligenter, si qvid durius acciderit; ego reliqvas portas circumeo 
et castrorum praesidia confirmo (Caes. B. C. III. 94). 

Obs. 2. Yet the present is used in Latin in some cases where we 
might expect the future : — 

a. When one asks one^ self what one must do or think (on the 
instant) : Qvid ago? Imusne sessum? (Cic. de Or. III. 5). Stantes 
plaudebant in re ficta ; qvid arbitramur in vera facturos fuisse ? 
(Id. Lsel. 7). 

b. With dum, until, when a waiting (waiting for) is expressed: £z- 
specto dum ille venit (Ter. Eun. I. 2, 126). Ego in Arcano 
opperior, dum ista cognosco (Cic. ad Att. X. 3). 

c. Usually with anteqvam and priusqvam, when it is said that 
something will happen before something else : Anteqvam pro L. 
Murena dicere instituo, pro me ipso pauca dicam (Cic. pro Mur. 
1). Sine (permit), priusqvam amplexum accipio, sciam, ad hostem 
an ad filium venerim (Liv. II. 40). But also Anteqvam de re- 
publica dicam ea qvae dicenda hoc tempore arbitror, exponam 
breviter consilium profectionis meae (Cic. Phil. I. 1). (Before 
something has happened, is expressed by the future perfect.) 

1 [This rule, however, is not adhered to by the poets, where the present is met with in such 
combinations, especially after ubi jani, quum jam : — 

(Libra ubi) medium luci atqve umbris jam dividit orbem, 

Exercete, viri, tauros (Virg. G. I. 210). 

Hoc etiam emenso quum jam decedit Olympo, 

Profuerit meminisse magis (Id. ibid. 450). 

Ipsa ego te, medios cum Sol accenderit aestus, 

Cum sitiunt herbae, et pecori jam gratior umbra est, 

In secreta senis ducam (Id. G. IV. 401).] 



296 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 340 

§ 340. By the Future Perfect (praeteritum in future) a future 
action is designated as already completed at a given future time : — 

Qvum tu h&ec leges, ego ilium fortasse convenero (Cic. ad Att. 
IX. 15), I shall perhaps have spoken with him. Hie prius se indicarit, 
qvam ego argentum confecero (Ter. Heaut. III. 3, 23), will have 
betrayed himself before I have procured the money. Si (ubi) istuc 
venero, rem tibi exponam. Melius morati erimus, qvum di- 
dicerimus, qvid natura desideret (Cic. Fin. I. 19). De Carthagine 
vereri non ante desinam, qvam illam excisam esse cognovero (Id. 
Cat. M. 6). Si plane occidimus ego omnibus meis exitio fuero (Id. 
ad Q. Fr. I. 4), I shall have been ; of the future result of what is past. 

Obs. 1. In English, it is often not expressly asserted in the sub- 
ordinate propositions, that one action precedes another, and the present 
is therefore frequently used where the future perfect must be employed in 
Latin; e.g. When I come to you, I will — . In Latin, the present may 
stand in a conditional proposition, although the leading proposition has 
the future, if an action that takes place precisely at the present moment 
is pointed out as the condition of a future result: e.g. Perficietur 
bellum, si urgemus obsessos (Liv. V. 4). Moriere virgis, nisi 
signum traditur (Cic. Verr. IV. 39). (If the action of the subordinate 
proposition is contemporary with that of the leading proposition, the 
simple future is made use of. See § 339, Obs. 1.) 

Obs. 2. If the future perfect stands both in the leading and subordi- 
nate propositions, it is intended to indicate that one action will be com- 
pleted at the same time with the other : Qvi Antonium oppresserit, is 
bellum confecerit (Cic. ad Fam. X. 19). Vicerit enim Caesar, si 
consul factus erit (Id. ad Att. VII. 15). Pergratum mini feceris, 
si de amicitia disputaris (Id. Lsel. 4). (Tolle hanc opinionem ; 
luctum sustuleris, Id. Tusc. I. 13). By the use of the perfect in the 
leading proposition, that which is certain and secure is represented as if 
it had already taken place : Si Brutus conservatus erit, vicimus (Cic. 
ad Fam. XII. 6). 

Obs. 3. In order to indicate more forcibly that the will (the power) 
precedes the action,' si voluero (potuero, licuerit, placuerit) is some- 
times put, when si volam (potero, &c.) might also be employed; e.g. 
Plato, si modo interpretari potuero, his fere verbis utitur (Cic. 
Legg. II. 18). 

Obs. 4. In some few instances, the meaning of the future perfect 
approaches that of the simple future ; e.g. in specifying a future result 
(what will have happened) : Multum ad ea, qvae qvaerimus, tua 
ista explicatio profecerit (Cic. Finn. III. 4) ; or in signifying what 
will happen while something else takes place, or what will soon be done : 
Tu invita mulieres; ego accivero pueros (Cic. ad Att. V. 1). 



§ 342 THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES. 297 

Clamor et primus impetus castra ceperit (Liv. XXV. 38) . (The 
comic writers, especially Plautus, carry this still further.) We should 
particularly notice the use of videro (videris, &c.) of a thing which is 
postponed to another time, or left to another's consideration : Qvae 
fuerit causa, mox videro (Cic. Finn. I. 10). Recte secusne, alias 
viderimus (Id. Ac. II. 44). Sed de hoc tu ipse videris (Id. de Or. 
I. 58), you yourself may look to this. Sitne malum dolor necne, 
Stoici viderint (Id. Tusc. II. 18) . (Of odero and meminero, see 
§ 161.) 

§ 341. In order to express what is future with reference to a 
given time, the Latin writers employ (in the active) the future par- 
ticiple with such tenses of the verb sum as the signification re- 
quires ; (periphrastic conjugation, § 116). 

This participle with the present sum (futurum in praesenti) is 
distinguished from the simple future by pointing out the future 
action as something which the subject is just on the point of doing, 
or now already resolved to do : — 

Qvum apes jam evolaturae sunt, consonant vehementer (Varr. 
R. R. III. 16). Bellum scripturus sum, qvod populus Romanus 
cum Jugurtha gessit (Sail. Jug. 5). Qvid timeam, si aut non 
miser post mortem aut etiam beatus futurus sum (Cic. Cat. M. 19). 
Sin una est interiturus animus cum corpore, vos tamen me- 
moriam nostri pie inviolateqve servabitis (Id. ib. 22). Facite, 
qvod vobis libet ; daturus non sum amplius (Id. Yerr. II. 29). 

Obs. This form is always used in specifying the condition of an action 
which is to take place : Me igitur ipsum ames oportet, si veri amici 
futuri sumus (Cic. Finn. II. 26), if we are to be true friends. Res- 
persas manus sangvine paterno judices videant oportet, si tantum 
facinus (parricidium) credituri sunt (Id. pro Rose. Am. 24). 

§ 342. «. The part. fut. with fui (futurum in praeterito abso- 
lutum) denotes that something was future (contemplated) at a time 
past : — 

Vos cum Mandonio et Indibili consilia communicastis et arma 
consociaturi fuistis (Liv. XXVIII. 28), ivere on the point of. Si illo 
die P. Sestius occisus esset, fuistisne ad arma ituri ? (Cic. pro Sest. 
38) , were you prepared to ? 

b. The part. fut. with eram (futurum in praeterito) signifies what 
was future and contemplated at a certain definite time, and by this 
means points out a situation, disposition, destination, &c., as it was 
at that time : — 



298 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 344 

Profecturus eram ad te, qvum ad me frater tuus venit. Sicut 
Campani Capuam, Tuscis ademptam, sic Jubellius et ejus milites 
Rhegium habituri perpetuam sedem eraiit (Liv. XXVIII. 28), 
thought of retaining. Ibi rex mansurus erat, si ire perrexisset (Cic. 
Div. I. 15). 

Obs. The participle with fueram may denote what was in contempla- 
tion before a certain time : Aemilius Paulus Delphis inchoatas in 
vestibulo columnas, qvibus imposituri statuas regis Persei fue- 
rant, suis statuis victor destinavit (Liv. XLV. 27) ; but it is used by 
the poets in precisely the same sense as with eram. 

§ 343. The participle with ero (futurum in futuro) denotes that 
something will be in contemplation at a certain future time : — 

Orator eorum, apud qvos aliqvid aget {at a certain time is already 
speaking), aut acturus erit (shall have to speak), mentes sensusqve 
degustet oportet (Cic. de Or. I. 52). Attentos faciemus auditores, 
si demonstrabimus, ea qvae dicturi erinius (what we shall be on the 
point of saying), magna, nova, incredibilia esse ("Id. de Inv. I. 16). 

Obs. In the passive, which has no participle with a future significa- 
tion, we must express those relations of time which in the active are 
denoted by the part, fut., with sum, by giving a different turn to the 
sentence; e.g. by the impersonal est in eo, ut; Erat in eo, ut urbs 
caperetur, ivas on the point of being taken, 

§ 344. The combination of the perf. part, with sum, which forms 
the perfect passive, may sometimes denote the condition in which a 
thing now is in consequence of a previous action ; e.g. Haec navis 
egregie armata est (present of the accomplished condition). The 
corresponding form for the imperfect is the same which otherwise 
denotes the pluperfect : Haves Hannibalis egregie armatae erant. 
With fui a perfect is formed, which denotes that a thing has been 
(for some time) in a certain condition: Bis deinde post Numae 
regnum Janus clausus fuit (Liv. I. 19). Leges, qvum qvae latae 
sunt, turn vero qvae promulgatae fuerunt (Cic. pro Sest. 25), 
both those which were brought forward, and those which remained 
(for some time) posted up for public inspection. It is incorrect to 
use this form for the customary perfect (of an action). 1 

1 [In many such passages fuit may be considered as a verb denoting existence, rather than 
the logical copula: Ljterni monumentum monumentoque statua superim, 
posita fuit, qvam statuam tempestate dijectam nuper vidimus ipsi (Liv. 
XXXVIII. 56) There ivas at Liternum a monument and a statue placed upon it, &c. The 
distinction is expressed in German by the two auxiliaries werden and seyn, but cannot 
always be clearly marked in English.] 



§ 345 THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES. 299 

Obs. 1. The part. perf. with fueram properly denotes (correspond- 
ing with the combination with fui) the pluperfect of a condition : e.g. 
Arma, qvae fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Cic. Div. 
I. 34) ; but it is also used instead of the usual pluperfect of the action : 
e.g. Locrenses qvidam circumventi Rhegiumqve abstract* fuerant 
(Liv. XXIX. 6). In the same way, amatus ero and fuero are used in 
the future perfect with the same meaning, but the first is to be preferred. 

Obs. 2. The beginner must beware of using the Latin perf. pass, of a 
thing that is still taking place and going forward, although in English 
the verb to be is used with the participle as an adjective. The king is 
loved is expressed by rex amatur. 

§ 345. The epistolary style in Latin has this peculiarity, that the 
writer often has in his eye the time when the letter will be read, 
and therefore, instead of the present and perfect, uses the imperfect 
and pluperfect, where the receiver would use these tenses, in report- 
ing the substance of the letter, while referring it back to the time 
of writing : — 

Nihil habebam, qvod scriberem; neqve enim novi qvidqvam 
audieram et ad tuas omnes epistolas rescripseram pridie ; erat 
tamen rumor, comitia dilatum iri (Cic. ad Att. IX. 10. The re- 
ceiver of the letter would repeat this as follows : Turn, qvum Cicero 
hanc epistolam scripsit, nihil habebat, qvod scriberet; neqve 
enim novi qvidqvam audierat et ad omnes meas epistolas rescrip- 
serat pridie ; erat tamen rumor, &c.) 

On the contrary, every thing which is said in general terms, and 
without particular reference to the time of composing the letter, 
must be put in the usual tense : — 

Ego te maximi et feci semper et facio. Pridie Idus Februarias 
haec scripsi ante lucem (simply of the letter written thus far, which 
was afterwards continued ; the receiver would say : Haec Cicero 
scripsit ante lucem) ; eo die eram coenaturus apud Pomponium 
(Cic. ad Q. Fr. II. 3). The other form, too, is frequently not used 
when it might have been adopted. 



300 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 347 



CHAPTER in. 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

§ 346. In the subjunctive a thing is asserted simply as an idea 
conceived in the mind, so that the speaker does not at the same time 
declare it as actually existing ; e.g. curro, ut sudem. In some kinds 
of subordinate propositions the subjunctive is also used of a thing 
which the speaker asserts as existing, in order to show that it is 
not considered by itself, but as a subordinate member of another 
leading idea ; e.g. ita cucurri, ut vehementer sudarem. 1 In the 
leading proposition the subjunctive may be referred to two princi- 
pal kinds ; the hypothetical, by which a thing not actually existing 
is asserted by way of assumption; and the optative, by which a 
thing is expressed as our wish or will. 

Obs. In English, we often use the auxiliary verbs may, can, must, 
would, should, to express that which in Latin is denoted by the sub- 
junctive. In such cases, therefore, the beginner must beware of using 
possum, licet, debeo, oportet, volo, which are only employed when a 
power, a permission, a duty, a wish is actually intended (rogavi, ut 
abiret, that he would go away, to go away. He must also avoid using 
the future (or the futurum in praeterito) contrary to Latin usage. 
See on this subject, § 378, b, in the following chapter. 

§ 347. a. The subjunctive is used in sentences conditional of that 
(the apodosis, § 326, Ohs. 3) which is noticed as not' actual fact, 
both in the leading proposition of that which does not hold good, 
but would hold good on a certain supposition, and in the subordi- 
nate (the protasis), with si, nisi, ni, si non, etiamsi, of the sup- 
position which is assumed in the statement, but declared not actually 
to hold good. (Compare § 332.) 

6. That which would take place now or at a future time, or (con- 
trary to the actual fact) is supposed as taking place, is expressed by 
the imperfect ; what would have taken place at a previous time, or 
of which it is assumed that it has taken place, by the pluperfect : — 

1 This last use of the subjunctive originated from the first and proper use, in consequence 
of the form being transferred from such subordinate propositions as express a simple concep- 
tion (e.g. propositions expressing a purpose) to others which assert something actually ex- 
isting (e.g. propositions expressing a result), because they agreed with the first in being con- 
ceived of as depending on the leading proposition, and necessary to complete its signification. 
But while the subjunctive was so transferred and applied in some cases, in others, on the con- 
trary, it was not so. 



§ 347 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 301 

Sapientia non expeteretur, si nihil efficeret. Si scirem, dicerem. 
Si scissem, in qvo periculo esses, statim ad te advolassem. Si 
Metelli fidei diffisus essem, judicem eum non retinuissem (Cic. 
Verr. A. I. 10). Nunqvam Hercules ad deos abisset, nisi earn 
sibi viam virtute munivisset (Id. Tusc. I. 14). Si Roscius has 
inimicitias cavere potuisset, viveret (Cic. Rose. Am. 6), lie would 
be still living. Necassem jam te verberibus, nisi iratus essem (Id. 
It. P. I. 38), if I had not been angry. 

The present subjunctive is employed when a condition that is 
still possible is assumed as occurring now or at some future time, 
while it is at the same time intimated that it will not actually 
occur : — 

Me dies, vox latera deficiant, si hoc nunc vociferari velim (Cic. 
Yerr. II. 21), which I can, but do not intend. Ego, si Scipionis 
desiderio me moveri negem, mentiar (Id. Lsel. 3). (In English, 
the imperfect is often used in this case : If I were to deny it, I should 
speak an untruth.) 

Obs. 1. The present is also often used instead of the imperfect of a 
thing which is no longer possible, and where there is no reference to the 
future, by a turn of rhetoric, where a thing is represented as if it might 
still take place: Tu si hie sis, aliter sentias (Ter. Andr. II. 1, 10), 
put yourself a moment in my situation, you will then think otherwise. 
Haec si patria tecum loqvatur, nonne impetrare debeat? (Cic. 
Cat. I. 8). (The present must in this case be used both in the leading 
and subordinate propositions.) 

Obs. 2. In the same way, the imperfect is sometimes put instead of 
the pluperfect either in both propositions, or in the subordinate proposi- 
tion, or (most rarely of all) in the leading proposition alone : Cur igitur 
et Camillus doleret, si haec post trecentos fere et qvinqvaginta 
annos eventura putaret, et ego doleam, si ad decern millia an- 
norum gentem aliqvam urbe nostra potituram putem ? (Cic. Tusc. 
I. 37). Num tu igitur Opimium, si turn esses {suppose you hadlived 
at that time) temerarium civem aut crudelem putares? (Id. Phil. 
VIII. 4). Non tarn facile opes Carthaginis concidissent, nisi illud 
receptaculum classibus nostris pateret (Id. Verr. II. 1). Persas, 
Indos, aliasqve si Alexander adjunxisset gentes, impedimentum 
majus qvam auxilium traheret (Liv. IX. 19). Such an imperfect, 
however, can only be put in the subordinate proposition (but is by 
no means always employed) when the action denoted by it is not con- 
sidered as one that has happened and been completed before the other, 
but as accompanying it and continuing along with it, or sometimes as 
occurring repeatedly : Haec si reipublicae causa faceres, in ven- 



302 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 348 

dendis decumis essent pronuntiata, qvia tua causa faciebas, 
imprudentia praetermissum erat (Cic. Verr. III. 20). The imper- 
fect is found in the leading proposition, or in both propositions (but not 
always), when one may imagine a repetition of the thing asserted (e.g. 
in attempts), or a continuing state (but not of a single event, which 
would have happened or not happened) . 

Obs. 3. The poets sometimes use the present subjunctive even instead 
of the pluperfect of a thing that would have happened at a previous 
time : Spatia si plura supersint, transeat (Diores) elapsus prior 
(Virg. JEn. V. 325). 

Obs. 4. When the conditional statement of the protasis is contrary to 
a coming reality, the futurum in praet. (ess em with the future part.) 
is used ; Paterer ni misericordia in perniciem casura esset (Sail. 
Jug. 31, from in perniciem cadet) [if pity were not going to result in 
ruin, as it is] . On the periphrasis casurus fuerim for cecidissem in 
the apodosis, see § 381. 

c. Sometimes the supposition, which does not actually hold good, 
but on which the assertion is made, is not expressly indicated by a 
conditional clause, but pointed out in another way, or supplied from 
the context : — 

Illo tempore aliter sensisses. Qvod mea causa faceres, idem 
rogo, ut amici mei causa facias. Neqve agricultura neqve frugum 
fructuumqve reliqvorum perceptio et conservatio sine hominum 
opera ulla esse potuisset (Cic. Off. II. 3), if human labor had not 
been applied. Magnitudo animi, remota a communitate conjunc- 
tioneqve humana, feritas sit qvaedam et immanitas (Id. ib. I. 44), 
separated, sc. in case it were separated. Ludificari enim aperte et 
calumniari sciens non videatur (Id. Rose. Am. 20), for he woxdd (in 
the case mentioned, which is only assumed) not appear, &c. Si un- 
qvam visus tibi sum in republica fortis, certe me in ilia causa 
admiratus esses (Id. ad Att. I. 16), viz. si affuisses. 

§ 348. Sometimes, however, a proposition limited by a condition 
is put in the indicative, although it is shown by the subjunctive in 
the proposition containing the condition, that the latter is not actu- 
ally fulfilled. This is done when the apodosis may be in a manner 
conceived of as independent of the protasis and valid in itself, either 
from brevity in the expression of the idea (ellipsis), or rhetorical 
liveliness in the diction. Such turns of speech are the follow- 
ing:— 

a. By a periphrasis with the part. fut. and fui or eram (futurum in 
praeterito, see § 342), it is shown what a person was actually ready 



§ 348 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 303 

to do in a certain case (that did not occur) : Si tribuni me triumphare 
prohiberent, Furium et Aemilium testes citaturus fui rerum a me 
gestarum (Liv. XXXVIII. 47). Illi ipsi aratores, qvi reman- 
serant, relicturi omnes agros erant, nisi ad eos Metellus Roma 
litteras misisset (Cic. Yerr. III. 52). Here, the indicative is always 
employed. 

b. The indicative is sometimes put to express that part of an action 
of which it may be said that it actually has taken place (or is taking 
place) , while the condition applies to the completion and effect of the 
whole : Pons sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuis- 
set (Liv. II. 10. Compare Obs. 2). Multa me dehortantur a 
vobis, ni studium reipublicae superet (Sail. Jug. 31). So the im- 
perf. indie, is put of a thing which was on the point of happening, and, 
on a certain condition, would have been completely effected : Si per L. 
Metellum licitum esset, matres illorum, uxores, sorores veniebant 
(Cic. Yerr. Y. 49) . Sometimes also of a thing which has partly occurred 
already in the present time : Admonebat me res, ut hoc qvoqve 
loco interitum eloqventiae deplorarem, ni vererer, ne de me ipso 
aliqvid viderer qveri (Cic. Off. II. 19) . 

c. The imperfect indicative is often used of a thing which, in a cer- 
tain case which does not actually hold, would, at the present time, 
be right and proper, or possible (debebam, decebat, oportebat, pote- 
ram, or eram with a gerundive or neuter adjective), as if to show the 
duty and obligation or possibility more unconditionally (especially when 
the idea of a thing which is otherwise and generally right is applied to 
a particular case) : Contumeliis eum onerasti, qvem patris loco, si 
ulla in te pietas esset, colere debebas (Cic. Phil. II. 38). Si vic- 
toria, praeda, laus dubia essent, tamen omnes bonos reipublicae 
subvenire decebat (Sail. Jug. 85). Si Romae Cn. Pompejus pri- 
vatum esset hoc tempore, tamen ad tantum bellum is erat deli- 
gendus (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 17). Si mihi nee stipendia omnia 
emerita essent necdum aetas vacationem daret, tamen aeqvum 
erat me dimitti (Liv. XLII. 34). Si tales nos natura genuisset, 
ut earn ipsam intueri et perspicere possemus, haud erat sane, qvod 
qvisqvam rationem ac doctrinam reqvireret (Cic. Tusc. III. 1). 
Poterat utrumqve praeclare (fieri), si esset fides, si gravitas in 
hominibus consularibus (Cic. ad Fam. I. 7). (But also: Haec si 
diceret, tamen ignosci non oporteret, Cic. Yerr. I. 27, especially in 
opposition to something unconditional : Cluentio ignoscere debebitis, 
qvod haec a me dici patiatur ; mihi ignoscere non deberetis, si 
tacerem, Cic. pro Cluent. 6.) In the same way, the perfect indicative 
is used of past time, instead of the pluperfect subjunctive : Debuisti, 
Vatini, etiamsi falso venisses in suspicionem P. Sestio, tamen mihi 



304 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 348 

ignoscere (Cic. in Vat. 1). Si ita Milo putasset, optabilius ei fuit 
dare jugulum P. Clodio qvam jugulari a vobis (Id. pro Mil. 11). 
Deleri totus exercitus potuit, si fugientes persecuti victores 
essent (Liv. XXXII. 12) . (Qvid facere potuissem, nisi turn con- 
sul fuissem ? Consul autem esse qvi potui, nisi eum vitae cursum 
tenuissem a pueritia, per qvem pervenirem ad honorem amplissi- 
mum ? Cic. R. P. I. 6.) 

Obs. When it is declared, without a condition, what might or ought 
to happen, or have happened, but does not happen, with possum, 
debeo, oportet, decet, convenit, licet, or sum with a gerundive, or 
sum with such adjectives as aeqvum, melius, utilius, par, satis (satius 
est), &c, the imperfect indicative is commonly used to represent present 
time, to describe that which does not happen, and the perfect and 
pluperfect indicative to represent the past : Perturbationes animorum 
poteram morbos appellare ; sed non conveniret ad omnia (Cic. 
Finn. III. 10) . Ne ad i empublicam qvidem accedunt nisi coacti ; 
aeqvius autem erat id voluntate fieri (Id. Off. I. 9). Oculorum 
fallacissimo sensu Chaldaei judicant ea, qvae ratione atqve animo 
videre debebant (Id. Div. II. 43). * Aut non suscipi bellum opor- 
tuit, aut geri pro dignitate populi Romani oportet (Liv. V. 4). 
Illud potius praecipiendum fuit, ut diligentiam adhiberemus in 
amicitiis comparandis (Cic. Lsel. 16). Prohiberi melius fuit im- 
pediriqve, ne Cinna tot summos viros interficeret, qvam ipsum 
aliqvando poenas dare (Id. N. D. III. 33). Qvanto melius fuerat, 
promissum patris non esse servatum (Id. Off. III. 25). Catilina 
erupit e senatu triumphans gaudio, qvem omnino vivum illinc 
exire non oportuerat (Id. pro Mur. 2b) . (Non modo unius patri- 
monium, sed urbes et regna celeriter tanta neqvitia devorare potu- 
isset (Id. Phil. II. 27), with the accessory signification, supposing it had 
had towns and kingdoms.) So, likewise, that which might yet happen, and 
its character, are expressed by the present indie. : Possum perseqvi 
multa oblectamenta rerum rusticarum ; sed ea ipsa qvae dixi, 
sentio fuisse longiora (Cic. Cat. M. 16) . Longum est enumerare, 
dicere, &c, it ivould be tedious. (Possim, si velim. § 347, b.) 

d. A thing which might have occurred on a certain condition is repre- 
sented, by a rhetorical emphasis of expression, as if it had already 
occurred, in order to show how near it was : Perierat imperium, si 
Fabius tantum ausus esset, qvantum ira svadebat (Sen. de Ir. I. 
11) ; particularly in the poets : Me truncus illapsus cerebro sustule- 
rat, nisi Faunus ictum levasset (Hor. Od. II. 17, 27). 



1 In the editions of Latin authors debeam is sometimes put incorrectly instead of debe- 
bam. 



§ 348 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 305 

Obs. By the poets, and some later prose-writers (e.g. Tacitus), 
eram is sometimes used in a qualified proposition entirely in the sense 
of essem ; Solus eram, si non saevus adesset Amor (Ov. Am. I. 
6, 34). 

e. Sometimes that which would happen in a possible assumed case (at 
variance with the real fact) is simply stated as something that will happen 
(fut. indie, for pres. subj.) ; Dies deficiet, si velim paupertatis cau- 
sam defendere (Cic. Tusc. V. 35). 

Obs. 1. What might almost have happened is expressed, in Latin, by 
the perf. indie, with prope or paene (as a thing that has been very near 
happening) ; Prope oblitus sum, qvod mazime fuit scribendum 
(Ca^l. ap. Cic. ad Fani. VIII. 14), 

Obs. 2. Sometimes, a conditional proposition belongs immediately to 
an infinitive, governed by the verb of the leading proposition, and is, for 
that reason alone, put in the subjunctive (according to § 369), without 
any influence on the leading proposition, which stands unconditionally 
in the indicative ; Sapiens non dubitat, si ita melius sit, migrare de 
vita (Cic. Finn. I. 19). In this way, nisi and si non with the sub- 
junctive often follow non possum with the infinitive : e.g. nee bonitas 
nee liberalitas nee comitas esse potest, si haec non per se expetan- 
tur (Cic. Off. III. 33) . Caesar munitiones prohibere non poterat, 
nisi praelio decertare vellet (Cses. B. C. III. 44). The same holds 
of other conditional propositions, which do not contain a condition apply- 
ing to the leading proposition, but complete an idea contained in it, which 
has the force of an infinitive or otherwise dependent proposition, so that 
the conditional clause belongs to the oratio obliqva (§ 369) : e.g. 
Metellus Centuripinis, nisi statuas Verris restituissent, graviter 
minatur (Cic. Yerr. II. 67 = minatur, se iis malum daturum, nisi 

. Minatur is stated absolutely without any condition). Nulla 

major occurrebat res, qvam si optimarum artium vias traderem 
meis civibus (Cic. de Div. II. 1 ; i.q. nullam rem putabam majorem 
esse). Sometimes, for the sake of brevity, a conditional proposition, 
in the subjunctive, is attached to a leading proposition which is expressed 
unconditionally ; Memini numeros, si verba tenerem (Virg. Buc. IX. 
45) = et possem canere si. 

Obs. 3. When we have a conditional proposition in the indicative, 
expressing the conditional relation simply and without any accessory 
signification, the leading proposition may stand in the subjunctive for 
some other reason : e.g. because it contains a wish or a demand or a 
question with a negative signification, to indicate what is to happen 
(§ 351, § 353), or because it is a dependent question (§ 356) : Si 
stare non possunt, corruant (Cic. Cat. II. 10). Non intelligo 
qvamobrem, si vivere honeste non possunt, perire turpiter velint 

20 



306 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 350 

(Id. ib. II. 10). We should particularly remark the use of an indica- 
tive conditional proposition in connection with a wish or curse in solemn 
protestations and oaths: Ne vivam, si scio (Cic. ad Att. IV. 16). 
Peream, nisi sollicitus sum (Id. ad Fain. XV. 9) . 

§ 349. The subjunctive is used in all propositions annexed by 
particles of comparison, which state something that' does not actu- 
ally exist, but is only assumed for the sake of comparison (as if; 
hypothetical propositions of comparison) : — 

Sed qvid ego his testibus utor, qvasi res dubia aut obscura 
sit? (Cic. Div. in Caec. 4). Me juvat, velut si ipse in parte laboris 
ac periculi fuerim, ad finem belli Punici pervenisse (Liv. XXXI. 
1). Parvi primo ortu sic jacent, tanqvam omnino sine animo 
sint (Cic. Finn. V. 15). (Concerning the particles used, in such proposi- 
tions, see § 444, a, Obs. 1, and b.) 

Obs. In English, the imperfect and pluperfect are required to ex- 
press what is thus merely assumed ; but, in Latin, the subordinate is 
regulated by the leading proposition, and has the imperfect or pluperfect 
only when the leading proposition belongs to past time. But the imper- 
fect is used in expressing comparison with a thing which would hold 
good in another case, not actually occurring; At accusat C. Cor- 
nelii filius, idemqve valere debet, ac si pater indicaret (Cic. pro 
Sull. 18). 

§ 350. a. The subjunctive is used of that which does not actually 
take place, but which, with an indefinite subject assumed for the 
occasion, might take place, and would do so if the attempt were 
made (conjunctivus potentialis). Such a subject is expressed by 
an indefinite or interrogative pronoun, or by a relative periphrastic 
clause (also in the subjunctive) : — 

Credat qvispiam (one might believe). Dicat (dixerit) aliqvis 
some one might here say). Qvis credat? Qvis eum diligat, qvem 
metuat? (Who could love a person whom he hated? Qvis diligit, Who 
loves ?) Qvis neget, cum illo actum esse praeclare ? (Cic. Lael. 3. 
Qvis negabit, who will deny ?) Qvi videret, urbem captam diceret 
(Id. Yerr. IV. 23), would have said. Poterat Sextilius impune ne- 
gare; qvis enim redargueret? (Id. Finn. II. 17), ivho could have 
refuted him? Of a thing which is now possible, the present or future 
perfect (as a hypothetical future, without its proper signification, see 
§ 380) is used in this way ; of past time, the imperfect. 

Obs. Concerning the use of the second person of the verb in propo- 
sitions of this kind, see § 370. 



§ 351 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 307 

b. With definite subjects also, a thing which easily can and will 
happen when there is an occasion for it, is modestly and cautiously 
expressed in the subjunctive, most frequently in the first person, to 
denote that to which one is inclined. In the active the future per- 
fect is here generally used (without its usual signification) : — 

Haud facile dixerim, utrum sit melius. Hoc sine ulla dubita- 
tione confirmaverim (J might affirm, if the occasion should arise), 
eloqventiam esse rem unam omnium difficillimam (Cic. Brut. 6). 
At non historia cesserim Graecis, nee opponere Thucydidi Sal- 
lustium verear (Quinct. X. 1, 101). Themistocles nihil dixerit, in 
qvo Areopagum adjuverit (Cic. Off. I. 22), will not easily be able to 
adduce any thing, 

Obs. 1. We should particularly notice the following subjunctives of 
this class : velim, nolim, malim, by which a wish is modestly ex- 
pressed (I could wish, could xoisli not, would rather) : e.g. velim dicas ; 
velim ex te scire ; nolim te discedere. A wish, which one would en- 
tertain under other circumstances, but which cannot now be ful611ed, is 
expressed by vellem, nollem, mallem: e.g. Vellem adesse posset 
Panaetius (Cic. Tusc. I. 33) . Nollem factum. (Vellet, lie could have 
wished) . 

Obs. 2. Such a subjunctive may also be employed in a subordinate 
proposition, with a conjunction which is otherwise constructed with the 
indicative : Etsi eum, qvi profiteri ausus sit, perscripturum se res 
omnes Romanas, in partibus singulis fatigari minime conveniat 
(would be highly unbecoming) , tamen provideo animo, qvicqvid pro- 
gredior, in vastiorem me altitudinem invehi (Liv. XXXI. 1). 
Camillus, qvamqvam exercitum assvetum imperio, qvi in Volscis 
erat, mallet, nihil recusavit (Liv. VI. 9. The simple antithesis would 
have to be expressed by etsi and qvamqvam with the indicative, § 361, 
Obs. 2). 

Obs. 3. A conjecture respecting a thing which is actually the fact is 
not expressed by the subjunctive, except with the particle forsitan, it may 
be that, which, in the best writers, is almost always put with that mood ; 
e.g. Concedo; forsitan aliqvis aliqvando ejusmodi qvippiam fece- 
rit (Cic. Verr. II. 32). 

§ 351. a. The subjunctive is used to express a wish, and (in the 
first person plural) mutual incitement or encouragement (the opta- 
tive) : — 

Valeant cives mei, sint incolumes, sint beati (Cic. pro Mil. 34). 
Ne vivam, si tibi concedo, ut ejus rei cupidior sis, qvam ego sum 
(Cic. ad Fam. VII. 23). Vivas et originis hujus gaudia longa 



308 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 351 

feras (Juv. VIII. 46). Imitemur majores nostros! Memineri- 
mus, etiam adversus infimos justitiam esse servandam (Cic. Off. 
I. 13). 

b. The subjunctive is sometimes used instead of the imperative 
in commands and prohibitions. See what is said on this subject in 
treating of the imperative, Chapter V. 

Obs. 1. With the subjunctive thus used, the negation is expressed by 
ne, not non. See § 456. Wishes are expressed still more strongly by 
the addition of the particle utinam (utinam ne) : e.g. Utinam ego 
tertius vobis amicus adscriberer (Cic. Tusc. V. 22 ; the imperfect 
being used of a thing which cannot happen). Utinam ne Phormioni id 
svadere in mentem incidisset (Ter. Phorm. I. 3, 5). Utinam is, in 
some rare instances, employed with a non following, which is closely 
annexed to the verb : Haeo ad te die natali meo scripsi, qvo utinam 
susceptus non essem (Cic. ad Att. XI. 9). The expression o, si (with 
the subjunctive) is elliptical ; O mihi praeteritos referat si Juppiter 
annos (Yirg. iEn. VIII. 560). 

Obs. 2. By the particles dum, dummodo, or modo alone (modo 
ut), if only, provided that (dum ne, dummodo ne, modo ne), a wish 
or demand is annexed to a proposition by way of condition or limita- 
tion : Oderint, dum metuant. Gallia aeqvo animo omnes belli 
patitur injurias, dummodo repellat periculum servitutis (Cic. Phil. 
XII. 4). Omnia postposui, dummodo praeceptis patris parerem, 
(Cic. Fil. ad Fam. XVI. 21). Celeriter ad comitia tibi veniendum 
censeo, dummodo ne qvid haec festinatio imminuat ejus gloriae 
qvam consecuti sumus (Cic. ad Fam. X. 25). Manent ingenia 
senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Id. Cat. M. 7). 
Concede, ut Verres impune haec emerit, modo ut bona ratione 
emerit (Cic. Verr. IV. 5). 

Obs. 3. The beginner may observe that an exhortation is often ex- 
pressed, in Latin, by a question with qvin, why not? Qvin imus? 
Qvin taces ? Qvin tu urges occasionem istam ? (Cic. ad Fam. 
VII. 8). 

Obs. 4. In the imperfect and pluperfect, the subjunctive is used, in 
an advisory or imperative sense, of a thing which ought to have been 
done, as distinguished from that which, according to a previous state- 
ment, has actually been done : Curio causam Transpadanorum 
aeqvam esse dicebat ; semper autem addebat, Vincat utilitas rei- 
publicae ! Potius diceret (he should rather have said), non esse 
aeqvam, qvia non esset utilis reipublicae, qvam qvum non utilem 
diceret, esse aeqvam fateretur (Cic. Off. III. 22). Saltern aliqvid 
de pondere detraxisset (Id. Finn. IV. 20), he should, at least, have 



§ 353 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 309 

deducted . Frumentum ne emisses (Id. Yerr. III. 84), you should 

not have bought any wheat. 

Obs. 5. Concerning the subjunctive in the continued oratio obliqva, 
for the imperative of the oratio recta, see § 404. 

§ 352. A permission, and an assumption or admission of a thing 
that is not actually so, or which one leaves undecided and will not 
contend about, are expressed by the subjunctive: — 

Fruatur sane Gabinius hoc solatio (Cic. Prow. Cons. 7), let 
Gabinius keep this comfort if he will. Vendat aedes vir bonus 
propter aliqva vitia, qvae ceteri ignorent ; pestilentes sint et 
habeantur salubres; male materiatae sint, ruinosae; sed hoc 
praeter dominum nemo sciat; qvaero, si haec emptoribus non 
dixerit, num injuste fecerit (Cic. Off. III. 13). Malus civis, 
improbus consul, seditiosus homo Carbo fuit. Fuerit aliis (sup- 
pose he has been so to others) ; tibi qvando esse coepit ? (Id. Yerr. I. 
14). Ne sint in senectute vires (Id. Cat. M. II.), let us assume that 
age has no powers. 

§ 353. The subjunctive is used in inquiries as to what is (or 
was) to be done, what shall be, or should have been done, especially 
when it is intended to indicate that something will not be done (has 
not been done) : Qvid faciam ? ( What am I to do? i.q. 1 can do 
nothing?) 

Utrum superbiam Verris prius commemorem an crudelitatem ? 
(Cic. Yerr. I. 47) ; Quam te memorem, virgo? (Yirg. iEn. I. 327), 
What shall I call you ? Qvid hoc homine faciatis ? aut ad qvam 
spem tarn importunum animal reservetis ? (Cic. Yerr. I. 16). 
Qvid faceret aliud ? (Cic. de Or. III. 23) , What else was he to do ? 
Haec qvum viderem, qvid agerem, judices ? Contenderem contra 
tribunum plebis privatus armis ? (Cic. pro Sest. 19). Qvid 
enumerem artium multitudinem, sine qvibus vita omnino nulla 
esse potest? (Id. Off II. 4) = non enumerabo. Cur plura com- 
memorem ? (But, Cur haec commemoro ? of a thing which one is 
already actually doing.) Qvidni meminerim? (Cic. de Or. II. 67), 
Why should I not remember? (negation of non memini). Also in 
questions expressive of disapprobation, by which a thing is described as 
not to be thought of: Qvaeso, qvid istuc consilii est? Illius stul- 
titia victa ex urbe rus tu habit atum migres ? (Ter. Hec. IY. 2, 
13), slwuld you — ? Ego te videre noluerim? (Cic. ad Q. Fr. I. 3), 
Can you suppose that I was unwilling to see you ? 

Obs. In questions relating to something that is not to be thought of, 
an elliptical expression with ut is also used : Egone ut te interpellem ? 



310 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 356 

(Cic. Tusc. II. 18) = Fierine potest, ut, &c. Qvanqvam qvid 
loqvor ? Te ut ulla res frangat ? Tu ut unqvam te corrigas ? (Id. 
Cat. I. 9.) 

§ 354. The subjunctive is employed in all propositions that 
denote the object of a preceding verb or expression {objective pro- 
positions, object-clauses), and are connected with it by the particles 
ut, that; ne, ut ne, ut non, qvin, qvominus, that not: — 

Sol efficit ut omnia floreant. Verres rogat et orat Dolabellam, 
ut ad Neronem proficiscatur (Cic. Yerr. I. 29). Precor, ne me 
deseras. Vix me contineo, qvin involem in ilium (Ter. Eun. Y. 
2, 20). Mos est hominum, ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus 
excellere (Id. Brut. 21). 

Obs. When and with what particle such propositions are to be formed 
is shown in the appendix to this chapter. In some particular cases the 
particle maybe omitted. See § 372, 6, Obs. 4; § 373, Obs. 1 ; § 375, a, 
Obs. 1. 

§ 355. The subjunctive is used in all subordinate propositions, 
which are subjoined to another proposition, to express its purpose 
or end, or its result, and are connected with it by the particles ut, 
in order that ; ne (ut ne), that not ; qyo, that so much ; ut, so that ; 
ut non, so that not ; qvin, that not {without). The subjunctive is 
likewise put after ut (ut non) in the signification although (even 
suppose that), and nedum, much less ; e.g. : — 

Legum omnes servi sumus, ut liberi esse possimus. Haec 
ideo ad te scribo, ne me oblitum esse mandatorum tuorum putes. 
Ager non semel aratur, sed novatur et iteratur, quo meliores fetus 
possit et grandiores edere (Cic. de Or. II. 30). Verres Siciliam 
ita vexavit et perdidit, ut restitui in antiqvum statum nullo modo 
possit (Id. Yerr. A. I. 4) . In virtute multi sunt adscensus ; ut {so 
that) is gloria maxime excellat, qvi virtute plurimum praestet (Id. 
pro Plane. 25). Nunqvam accedo, qvin abs te abeam doctior 
(Ter. Eun. IY. 7, 21)! Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda vol- 
untas (Ov. ex Pont. III. 4, 79). Vix in ipsis tectis frigus vitatur, 
nedum in mari sit facile abesse ab injuria temporis {of the season ; 
Cic. ad Fam. XVI. 8). 

Obs. Concerning some peculiarities in the combination of these propo- 
sitions, and in the use of the conjunctions, see Chap. IX. § 440 ; con- 
cerning ne and ut ne, § 456 with Obs. 3. 

§ 356. In the subjunctive are put all dependent interrogative 
propositions ; i.e. all propositions which are connected with another 



§ 356 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 311 

proposition by an interrogative pronoun or adverb, or by an inter- 
rogative particle, in order to designate the object of a verb, of a 
phrase, or of a single adjective or substantive : — 

Qvaesivi ex puero qvid faceret, ubi fuisset. Incertum est, qvid 
qvaeqve nox aut dies ferat. Difficile dictu est, utrum hostes 
magis Pompeji virtutem pugnantes timuerint an mansvetudinem 
victi dilexerint (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 14). Doleam, necne doleam, 
nihil interest (Id. Tusc. II. 12). Vides, ut (how) alta stet nive 
candidum Soracte (Hor. Od. I. 9, 1). Valetudo sustentatur 
notitia sui corporis et observatione, qvae res prodesse soleant 
aut obesse (Cic. Off. II. 24). l 

Obs. 1. Concerning the interrogative particles, see §§ 451-453. The 
beginner must avoid confounding dependent questions with those relative 
clauses which in English begin with what ( = that, whicli) ; e.g. I give 
what I have, do, qvae habeo ; I said what I knew (repeated all I knew) , 
dixi, qvae sciebam. Dico, qvod sentio, I say what I think, i.e. 
what I say is my real opinion ; dicam, qvid sentiam, I shall tell what 
I think, i.e. I shall state what my opinion is. 

Obs. 2. In dependent questions about a thing which is to happen, the 
notion is to is frequently not expressed by a separate word : Vos hoc 
tempore earn potestatem habetis, ut statuatis, utrum nos semper 
miseri lugeamus (are to mourn), an aliqvando per vestram vir- 
tutem sapientiamqve recreemur (Cic. pro Mil. 2). Non satis 
constabat, qvid agerent (Caes. B. G. III. 14), they did not rightly 
know what they were to do. 

Obs. 3. In the oldest poets (Plautus and Terence) a dependent inter- 
rogative proposition sometimes stands in the indicative : e.g. si nunc 
memorare velim, qvam fideli animo et benigno in illam fui, vere 
possum (Ter. Hec. III. 5, 21) ; in the later poets (Horace, Virgil) 
this is rare, in prose quite inadmissible. Sometimes a direct question is 
put after die or qvaero, where an indirect one might have been em- 
ployed : Die, qvaeso : Num te ilia terrent, triceps Cerberus, Cocyti 
fremitus, travectio Acherontis ? (Cic. Tusc. I. 5). Here it may also 
be observed, that the expression nescio qvis (nescio qvomodo, nescio 
qvo pacto, nescio unde, &c.) is often inserted in a proposition that is 
not interrogative, by way of parenthesis, or as a remark exclusively 
applying to a single word : minime assentior iis, qvi istam nescio 
qvam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Cic. Tusc. III. 6), that — 
how shall I term it ? — insensibility to pain. Licuit esse otioso 
Themistocli, licuit Epaminondae, licuit etiam mihi; sed, nescio 
qvomodo, inhaeret in mentibus qvasi seculorum qvoddam au- 
gurium futurorum (Id. Tusc. I. 15). 

1 Quid agis? Quid agam? (sc. quaeris). Male. 



312 LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§357 



Obs. 4. Concerning the mood of interrogative propositions in the 
oratio obliqva, see § 405. 

§ 357. a. Subordinate propositions, which specify a cause and a 
reason (by means of the particles qvod and qvia, because), or an 
occasion (by means of the particles qvoniam, qvando, since), are 
usually put in the indicative (if the speaker adduces the actual 
reason, the actual occasion, according to his own views) ; but in 
the subjunctive, if the reason (or occasion) is given according to 
the views of another party, who is represented as the agent in the 
main proposition : — 

Aristides nonne ob earn causam expulsus est patria, qvod 
praeter modum Justus esset? (Cic. Tusc. V. 36), because lie was too 
just in the opinion of Ms fellow-citizens ? Bene majores accubitionem 
epularem aniicorum, qvia vitae conjunctionem haberet, con- 
vivium nominaverunt (Id. Cat. M. 13) ; in this passage the imperfect 
also shows, that the reason alleged is agreeable to the view taken by the 
ancestors. 

Sometimes such a subjunctive is employed where the indicative 
might also have been made use of, because the reason assigned is 
assumed by the speaker himself also as the real one: — 

Romani tamen, qvia consules ad id locorum (hitherto) prospere 
rem gererent, minus his cladibus commovebantur (Liv. XXV . 22) , 
because tliey saiv that the consuls were successful. 

On this account qvod (but not qvia), with a subjunctive, is used 
after verbs which signify praise, blame, complaint, surprise, where we 
give the reason as the assertion of another : Laudat Panaetius Afri- 
canum, qvod fuerit abstinens (Cic. Off. II. 22). Socrates accu- 
satus est, qvod corrumperet juventutem et novas superstitiones 
introduceret (Quinct. IV. 4, 5). But if the speaker himself designates 
something that is an actual fact as the ground of the complaint, &c, the 
indicative is employed : Qvod spiratis, qvod vocem mittitis, qvod 
formam hominum habetis, indignantur (Liv. IV. 3). 

Obs. 1. The speaker may also express the reason of his own actions 
in the subjunctive as if according to the views of another party, if he states 
how the matter formerly appeared to him, without expressly confirming 
this view now : Mini semper Academiae consvetudo de omnibus 
rebus in contrarias partes disserendi non ob earn causam solum 
placuit, qvod aliter non posset, qvid in qvaqve re verisimile esset, 
inveniri, sed etiam qvod esset ea maxima dicendi exercitatio 
(Cic. Tusc. II. 3). 



§ 358 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 313 

Obs. 2. Sometimes qvod is put with the subjunctive of a verb of say- 
ing or thinking, although not the circumstance that some one said or 
thought a thing, but the substance of what was said or thought, con- 
veys the reason as given by another : Qvum Hannibalis permissu 
exisset e castris, rediit paullo post, qvod se oblitum nescio qvid 
diceret (Cic. Off. I. 13), because, as lie said, lie had forgotten some- 
thing. Multi prae tores qvaestores et legatos suos de provincia 
decedere jusserunt, qvod eorum culpa se minus commode audire 
arbitrarentur (Id. Verr. HE. 58). 

b. The subjunctive is employed, where it is intended to denote 
that the reason alleged is not the real and actual one : — 

Nemo oratorem admiratus est, qvod Latine loqveretur (Cic. de 
Or. III. 14). In this way, particularly non qvod (non ideo qvod 
non eo qvod) or non qvia is put with the subjunctive, followed by sed 
qvod (qvia), introducing the true motive : Pugiles in jactandis caes- 
tibus ingemiscunt, non qvod doleant animove succumbant, sed 
qvia profundenda voce omne corpus intenditur venitqve plaga ve- 
hementior (Cic. Tusc. II. 23), (Jactatum in condicionibus neqvic- 
qvam de Tarqviniis in regnum restituendis, magis qvia id negare 
Porsena neqviverat Tarqviniis, qvam qvod negatum iri sibi ab 
Romanis ignoraret (Liv. II. 13) =non qvod — ignoraret, sed qvia 
— neqviverat) . There are a few exceptions : non qvia nasus nullus 
illis erat (Hor. Sat. H. 2, 90). 

Obs. For non qvod (non qvia), non qvo, not that, is also em- 
ployed : De consilio meo ad te, non qvo celandus esses, nihil 
scripsi antea, sed qvia communicatio consilii qvasi quaedam 
videtur esse efflagitatio ad coeundam societam vel periculi vel 

laboris (Cic. ad Fam. V. 19). (Also non qvo , sed ut or sed ne.) 

For non qvod (qvo) non, we find also non qvin; e.g. non tarn ut 
prosim causis, elaborare soleo, qvam ne qvid obsim ; non qvin 
enitendum sit in utroqve, sed tamen multo est turpius oratori 
nocuisse videri causae qvam non profuisse (Cic. de Or. II. 72). ■ 

§ 358. The subjunctive is put after the particle qvum, when it 
denotes the occasion {since, qyum causal), or (with imperfects and 
pluperfects) the succession and order of events in historical narra- 
tion (when) : — 

Qvum vita sine amicis insidiarum et metus plena sit, ratio 
ipsa monet amicitias comparare (Cic. Finn. I. 20). Dionysius 
qvum in communibus suggestis consistere non auderet, contionari 
ex turri alta solebat (Id. Tusc. V. 20). Epaminondas qvum vicis- 
set Lacedaemonios apud Mantineam atqve ipse gravi vulnere 



314 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 358 

exanimari se videret, qvaesivit, salvusne esset clipeus (Id. 
Finn. II. 30). 

If, on the other hand, an action is only referred to a certain time, 
so that qvum signifies when, with a present or future, or at the time 
when, the indicative is employed ; though in speaking of past time 
the imperfect subjunctive is likewise admissible : — 

Qvi injuriam non propulsat, qvum potest, injuste facit (Cic. Off. 
III. 18) . Qvum inimici nostri venire dicentur, turn in Epirum ibo 
(Id. ad Fam. XIV. 3). Res, qvum haec scribebam, erat in extre- 
mum adducta discrimen (Id. ib. XII. 6). Dionysius ea, qvae con- 
cupierat, ne turn qvidem, qvum omnia se posse censebat, conse- 
qvebatur (Id. Tusc. V. 20). Qvum Caesar in Galliam venit, 
alterius Gallorum factionis principes erant Aedui, alterius Se- 
qvani (Cses. B. G. VI. 12). Zenonem, qvum Athenis essem, 
audiebam freqventer (Cic. ]ST. D. I. 21). C. Caesar turn, qvum 
masime furor arderet Antonii, firmissimum exercitum compara- 
vit (Id. Phil. III. 2). Qvanto facilius abire fuit hosti, qvum 
procul abessemus, qvam nunc, qvum in cervicibus sumus (Liv. 
XLIV. 39). With the other conjunctions of time, which denote the 
succession of actions, the indicative is made use of. See § 338, b. 

Obs. 1. The indicative is also used when qvum (qvum interim) 
connects an event with a time and circumstances previously mentioned : 
Jam ver appetebat, qvum Hannibal ex hibernis mo vet (Liv. XXII. 
1) . Jam scalis egressi milites prope summa ceperant, qvum oppi- 
dani concurrunt, lapides, ignem, alia praeterea tela ingerunt (Sail. 
Jug. 60). Piso ultimas Hadriani maris oras petivit, qvum interim 
Dyrrachii milites domum, in qva eum esse arbitrabantur, obsidere 
coeperunt (Cic. in Pis. 38). (So likewise, Nondum centum et decern 
anni sunt, qvum de pecuniis repetundis a L. Pisone lata lex est 
(Id. Off. II. 21), it is not yet one hundred and ten years, since a 
law .) 

Obs. 2. Qvum signifying inasmuch as stands with the indicative in 
the present and perfect : Concedo tibi, ut ea praetereas, qvae, qvum 
taces, nulla esse concedis (Cic. Rose. Am. 19), inasmuch as you are 
silent, by being silent. Praeclare facis, qvum Caepionis et Luculli 
memoriam tenes (Id. Finn. III. 2) ; but with the subjunctive in the 
imperfect : Munatius Plancus qvotidie meam potentiam criminaba- 
tur, qvum diceret, senatum, qvod ego vellem, decernere (Cic. pro 
Mil. 5). After laudo, gratulor, gratias ago, gratia est, qvum is 
found with the indicative in the same sense as qvod, that, because ; e.g. 
Gratulor tibi, qvum tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Cic. ad Fam. 
IX. 11). 



§ 359 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 315 

Obs. 3. Qvum usually has the subjunctive when it expresses a kind 
of comparison, and especially a contrast, between the contents of the 
leading proposition and the subordinate (while on the other hand, whereas, 
although) ; Hoc ipso tempore, qvum omnia gymnasia philosophi 
teneant, tamen eorum auditores discum audire qvam philoso- 
phum malunt (Cic. de Or. II. 5). Hence also with qvum — turn, as 
well — as, when each member has its own verb, the first is often put in 
the subjunctive, to express a kind of comparison (between the general 
and the particular case, the earlier and the later, &c.) ; e.g. Qvum mul- 
tae res in philosophia neqvaqvam satis adhuc explicatae sint, turn 
perdifficilis et perobscura qvaestio est de natura deorum (Cic. 
N*. D. I. 1). Sex. Roscius qvum omni tempore nobilitatis fautor 
fuisset, turn hoc tumultu proximo praeter ceteros in ea vicinitate 
earn partem causamqve defendit (Id. Rose. Am. 6). If only the 
connection between the two is to be expressed, the indicative is used : 
Qvum ipsam cognitionem juris augurii conseqvi cupio, turn me- 
hercule tuis incredibiliter studiis delector (Cic. ad Fam. III. 9). 

Obs. 4. We always have the subjunctive in audivi (auditum est) 
ex eo, qvum diceret, I have heard him say. So also the subjunctive is 
almost always found used after the phrase : Fuit (erit) tempus (illud 
tempus, dies), qvum, there teas once a time, there will come a time, when 
(such a time that) ; also after the simple expression, fuit, qvum : H- 
lucescet aliqvando ille dies, qvum tu fortissimi viri magnitudinem 
animi desideres (Cic. pro Mil. 26). Fuit, qvum mihi qvoqve ini- 
tium reqviescendi fore justum arbitrarer (Id. de Or. I. 1). 

§ 359. When an action that is often repeated (every time that, as often 
as) is expressed by qvum, or other conjunctions (ubi, postqvam, qvo- 
ties, si), or by indefinite relative words (qvicunqve, ubicunqve, qvo- 
cunqve, in qvamcunqve partem, ut qvisqve, according as each), 
with the verb in the imperfect or (more frequently, according to § 338, 
a, Obs.) in the pluperfect, the older writers (Cicero, Caesar, Sallust) com-, 
monly use the indicative ; others, again, give the preference to the sub- 
junctive : Qvum ver esse coeperat, Verres dabat se labori atqve 
itineribus (Cic. Verr. V. 10). Qvamcunqve in partem eqvites 
impetum fecerant, hostes loco cedere cogebantur (Cass. B. C. II. 
41) . Numidae si a perseqvendo hostes deterrere neqviverant, dis- 
jectos a tergo aut lateribus circumveniebant ; sin opportunior 
fugae collis qvam campi fuerant, Numidarum eqvi facile evadebant 
(Sail. Jug. 50). Qvemcunqve lictor jussu consulis prehendisset, 
tribunus mitti jubebat (Liv. III. 11). Qvum (every time that) in 
jus duci debitorem vidissent, convolabant (Id. II. 27) . Id fecialis 
ubi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum mittebat (Liv. I. 32). 



316 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 360 

§ 360. The conjunctions dum, donee, and qvoad, signifying until, 
with priusqvam and anteqvam, are (according to the most regular 
usage) constructed with the indicative, when an action is simply 
expressed that has actually commenced or is commencing (a), but 
with the subjunctive, if a design is at the same time intimated (until 
something can be done), or an action which has not actually com- 
menced (before something can be done, i.e. so that it is not done 
(b). Yet the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are also em- 
ployed in simply indicating a point of time and an action which has 
really taken place (especially with anteqvam, priusqvam, in the 
historical style (c) : the subjunctive is also found with anteqvam 
and priusqvam, in speaking of a thing which usually happens 
before something else happens (d). 

a. De comitiis, donee rediit Marcellus, silentium fuit (Liv. 
XXIII. 31). Haud desinam, donee perfecero (Ter. Phorm. II. 3, 
72) . Milo in senatu fuit eo die, qvoad senatus dimissus est (Cic. 
pro Mil. 10). Mecum deserta qverebar, dum me jucundis lapsam 
sopor impulit alis (Prop. I. 3, 43). x Non in hac re sola fuit ejus- 
modi, sed, anteqvam ego in Siciliam veni, in maximis rebus ac 
plurimis (Cic. Yerr. II. 47). Non defatigabor anteqvam illorum 
ancipites vias rationesqve percepero (Id. de Or. III. 36). Epami- 
nondas non prius bellare destitit, qvam urbem Lacedaemoniorum 
obsidione clausit (Corn. Epam. 8). 

b. Iratis subtrahendi sunt ii, in qvos impetum conantur facere, 
dum se ipsi colligant (Cic. Tusc. IV. 36) , until they (that they may) 
compose themselves. 2 Numidae, priusqvam ex castris subveniretur 
in proximos colles discedunt (Sail. Jug. 54). Anteqvam homines 
nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent, in Macedoniam per- 
rexi (Cic. pro Plane. 41). 

c. Trepidationis aliqvantum elephanti edebant, donee qvietem 
ipse timor fecisset (Liv. XXI. 28). Paucis ante diebus, qvam 
Syracusae caper entur, Otacilius in Africam transmisit (Id. XXV. 
31). 3 

d. Tragoedi qvotidie, anteqvam pronuncient, vocem cubantes 
sensim excitant (Cic. de Or. I. 59). Tempestas minatur ante- 
qvam surgat (Sen. Ep. 103). 

Obs. 1. Concerning exspecto dum, opperior dum, with a present, 
see § 339, Obs. 2. Exspectare dum, with the subjunctive, answers 

1 Dura is but rarely used in this signification ; (usqve ad eum finem, dum, Cic. 
Verr. Act. I. 6). 

2 Here dum is employed, not donee, to indicate design. 

8 Non ante (prius) . . . quam always takes the perfect indicative. 



§ 361 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 317 

nearly to the English to expect, that (with the indicative, to wait, until) : 
Exspectas fortasse, dum dicat, Patietur, perferet (Cic. Tusc. II. 7). 
Nolite exspectare, dum omnes obeam oratione mea civitates (Id. 
Verr. II. 51). (Also exspecto, ut: Nisi forte exspectatis, ut ilia 
diluam, qvae Erucius de rebus commenticiis objecit, Id. Rose. 
Am. 29.) 

Obs. 2. Dum and donee may also be constructed with the sub- 
junctive in the signification so long as, when a design is expressed (so 
long, while, — i.e. that something may be done in the mean time) ; Die 
inseqventi qvievere milites, dum praefectus urbis vires inspiceret. 
(Otherwise, they always take the indicative : Ti. Gracchus, P. P., tam- 
diu laudabitur, dum memoria rerum Romanarum manebit, Cic. Off. 
H. 12.) 

Obs. 3. Concerning anteqvam and priusqvam with the present, see 
§ 339, Obs. 2. The present indicative is put with these conjunctions 
even to express a thing that one wishes to prevent, that must not happen : 
Dabo operam, ut istuc veniam anteqvam ex animo tuo emuo (Cic. 
ad Fain. VII. 14). 

Obs. 4. When ante, citius, or prius qvam is used, to denote what is 
impossible, or what is to be warded off at any cost, it is followed by the 
subjunctive (since the action is considered as not taking place) : Ante 
leves pascentur in aethere cervi, qvam nostro illius labatur pec- 
tore vultus (Virg. B. I. 59). (Zeno Magnetas dixit in corpora 
sva citius per furorem saevituros, qvam ut Romanam amicitiam 
violarent, Liv. XXXY. 31.) So, likewise, after potius qvam; Pri- 
vabo potius Lucullum debito testimonio qvam id cum mea laude 
communicem (Cic. Acad. II. 1). 

§ 361. The subjunctive is annexed to the particle qvam vis, 
though ever so much (how much soever), and to licet, although (prop- 
erly the verb licet, with an ellipsis of ut) : — 

Qvod turpe est, id, qvamvis occultetur, tamen honestum fieri 
nullo modo potest (Cic. Off. III. 19). Improbitas, licet adversario 
molesta sit, judici invisa est (Quinct. VI. 4, 15). 

Obs. 1. Qvamvis properly signifies however much you will, and the 
subjunctive by itself expresses the concession : Let it be concealed 
(§ 352). Qvantumvis is used in the same way: Ista, qvantumvis 
exigua sint, in majus excedunt (Sen. Ep. 85). Licet is rarely used 
by good writers quite as a conjunction, but commonly as a verb with a 
permissive signification (may) : Premant omnes, licet ; dicam, qvod 
sentio (Cic. de Or. I. 44), they may all exclaim against it, yet I 
will, &c. 



318 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 362 

Obs. 2. The contrast between what is asserted and something else, 
that actually does (or did) take place, is expressed by qvanqvam or 
etsi (more strongly, tametsi) with the indicative : Romani qvanqvam 
itinere et proelio fessi erant, tamen Metello instruct! obviam 
procedunt (Sail. Jug. 53). Caesar, etsi nondum eorum consilia 
cognoverat, tamen fore id, qvod accidit, suspicabatur (Cses. B. G. 
IV. 31). Tametsi vicisse debeo, tamen de meo jure decedam 
(Cic. pro Rose. Am. 27) ; (they take the subjunctive only when there is 
some other reason for it ; e.g. according to § 350, b, Obs. 2, or accord- 
ing to §§ 369, 370). By etsi and (more frequently) etiamsi as condi- 
tional particles, it is expressed that a thing takes place even in a certain 
case, and under a certain condition. The indicative is employed (ac- 
cording to § 332), when the condition is simply expressed (without being 
negatived) : Viri boni multa ob earn causam faciunt, qvod decet, 
etsi nullum consecuturum emolumentum vident (Cic. Finn. II. 14). 
Qvod crebro aliqvis videt, non miratur, etiamsi, cur fiat, nescit 
(Cic. Div. II. 22) ; the subjunctive, when it is stated that the condition 
does not obtain : Etiamsi mors oppetenda esset, domi atqve in patria 
mallem, qvam in externis atqve alienis locis (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 7). 
Cur Siculi te defensorem habere nolint, etiamsi taceant, satis 
dicunt; verum non tacent (Cic. Div. in Caec. 6. Dicunt in the in- 
dicative, according to § 348, b), they declare it by their way of acting, 
suppose even that they were silent. 

Obs. 3. The poets and later writers use qvam vis with the indicative 
for qvamqvam, although (of a thing which actually does take place) , or 
etiamsi, even if; Pollio amat nostram, qvam vis est rustica, Musam 
(Virg. B. III. 84), which is very rare in the older prose- writers. On the 
other hand, they use qvanqvam with the subjunctive, instead of the indica- 
tive : Nee vero Alcidem me sum laetatus euntem accepisse lacu, nee 
Thesea Pirithoumqve, dis qvanqvam geniti essent (Virg. Mn. VI. 
394) . Qvinctius, qvamqvam moveretur his vocibus, manu tamen 
abnuit, qvicqvam opis in se esse (Liv. XXXVI. 34) . 

§ 362. a. Eelative propositions (whether introduced by the rela- 
tive pronoun or a relative adverb) take the indicative when they 
simply give a more precise but actually true definition of an idea 
of the leading proposition, or when they, by a periphrasis, which is 
equivalent to a simple noun, describe and specify an idea, concern- 
ing which some statement is made ; e.g. : — 

Demosthenes, qvi Athenis versabatur, clarissimus orator fuit 
Ubi talia impune fiunt, vita omnium in periculo est. Num alii 
oratores probantur a multitudine, alii ab iis, qvi intelligunt (Cic. 
Brut. 49), by connoisseurs. 



§363 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 319 

The indicative is also employed in propositions beginning with 
an indefinite relative pronoun (§ 87) or adverb, which describe an 
idea (by periphrasis), but leave it indefinite so far as any individual 
person or thing, or the extent of its application, is concerned : — 

Qvoscunqve de te qveri audivi, qvacunqve potui ratione, pla- 
cavi (Cic. ad Q. Fr. I. 2) . P. Lentulus, qvidqvid habuit (whatever 
ability he possessed) , qvantumcunqve fuit, id totum habuit e disci- 
plina (Id. Brut. 77) . Patria est, ubicunqve est bene (Id. Tusc. V. 
37) . Sed qvoqvo modo illud se habet, haec qverela vestra nihil 
valet (Id. pro Lig. 7). Utrum (whichever of the two, it is indifferent 
whether it be one or the other) ostendere potest, vincat necesse est 
(Id. pro TuU. § 28). 

Obs. We must notice, as an exception to this rule, that certain writers 
use the subjunctive after indefinite relatives, in order to express a re- 
peated action. See § 359. 

b. But in various cases the relative proposition takes the sub- 
junctive, to denote either a mere conception of the mind (a thing 
not actually existing), or a particular relation between the contents 
of the relative proposition and the leading proposition. (Hence a 
relative with the subjunctive often has the same signification, which 
is expressed more definitely by means of a conjunction.) 

§ 363. a. The subjunctive is employed, when the relative propo- 
sition expresses a design connected with the action mentioned in the 
leading proposition (who is to = that he, qvi = lit is) or a destina- 
tion which a thing has (something that may, something to — ) : — 

Clusini legatos Romam, qvi auxilium a senatu peterent, mi- 
sere (Liv. V. 35). Misi ad Antonium, qvi hoc ei diceret (Cic. Phil. 

I. 5), one who was to . Homini natura rationem dedit, qva 

regerentur animi appetitus (Id. N. D. II. 12). Sunt multi, qvi 
eripiunt aliis, qvod aliis largiantur (Id. Off. I. 14), who take from 
sortie to give to others. Germani neqve Druides habent, qvi rebus 
divinis praesint, neqve sacrificiis student (Caes. B. G. VI. 21). 
Haec habui, de amicitia qvae dicerem (Cic. Lael. 27) , this was ichat 
I had to say. Habes, qvod agas et qvo te oblectes (something to do 
and amuse yourself with) . Non habet, unde solvat (he has not the 
means of paying) . Dedi ei, ubi habitaret (a place to live in) . Compare 
§365. 

b. It should be particularly remarked, that the relative with the 
subjunctive is put after the adjectives dignus, indignus, idoneus, 
and sometimes after aptus, to express that of which a person is 
worthy, or for which he is qualified : — 



320 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 3^4 

Digna res est, qvam diu multumqve consideremus (qvae diu 
multumqve consideretur) . Homines scelerati indigni mini vide- 
bantur, qvorum causam agerem. Gajus non satis idoneus visus 
est, cui tantum negotium committeretur. Nulla mini videbatur 
aptior persona, qvae de senectute loqveretur, qvam Catonis (Cic. 
Lsel. 1). 

Obs. 1 . The poets and later prose- writers construct these adjectives also 
with the infinitive (of the active or passive voice, as the connection may 
require) : Lyricorum Horatius fere solus legi dignus est (Quinct. 
X. 1, 96) = qvi legatur. Fons rivo dare nomen idoneus (Hof. Ep. 
I. 16, 12) = qvi det. (Dignus, ut (Liv.) is very rare.) 

Obs. 2. From non (nihil) habeo (nihil est, non est) qvod (I have 
nothing to , there is nothing to ), we must distinguish the ex- 
pression non habeo, I do not know, with a dependent question; De 
pueris qvid agam, non habeo (Cic. ad Att. VII. 19). 

Obs. 3. Here we may also notice the subjunctive, which is employed 
after the particles cur, qvamobrem, qvare, when causa, ratio, argu- 
mentum, or a phrase of similar import precedes (the reason for which 
one is to reason to ). See § 372, b, Obs. 6. 

§ 364. The subjunctive is employed in relative propositions, 
which give a more complete idea of a certain quality and show how 
it operates, so that qvi has the meaning of ut after talis (one who, 
i. q. such a one that) : — 

Innocentia est affectio talis animi, qvae noceat nemini (Cic. 
Tusc. III. 8) . Nulla acies humani ingenii tanta est, qvae penetrare 
in coelum possit (Id. Ac. II. 39). Qvis potest esse tarn aversus a 
vero, qvi neget, haec omnia, qvae videmus, deorum immortalium 
potestate administrari (Id. Cat. III. 9). Ego is sum, qvi nihil 
unqvam mea potius qvam meorum civium causa fecerim (Id. ad 
Fam. V. 21). (Also: Non is es, Catilina, ut te unqvam pudor a 
turpitudine revocarit, Cic. Cat. I. 9.) L. Pinarius erat vir acer et 
qvi nihil in fide Siculorum reponeret (Liv. XXIV. 37) . Syracu- 
sani, homines periti, qvi etiam occulta suspicari possent, habe- 
bant rationem qvotidie piratarum, qvi securi ferirentur (Cic. Verr. 
V. 28). Nunc dicis aliqvid, qvod ad rem pertineat (Cic. Rose. Am. 

18), something of such a nature, that it . Num qvidqvam potest 

eximium esse in ea natura, qvae nihil nee actura sit unqvam 

neqve agat neqve egerit? (Id. N. D. I. 41), a being, that , a 

being of such a kind, that . In enodandis nominibus vos Stoici, 

qvod miserandum sit, laboratis (Id. ib. III. 24), to a pitiable degree. 
(So also after a comparative : Campani majora deliqverant, qvam qvi- 
bus ignosci posset. See § 308, Obs. 1.) 



§ 365 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 321 

Obs. 1. Such a relative proposition is connected either with a demon- 
strative word, which denotes a quality (e.g. talis, tantus, ejusmodi, is) 
or with a substantive of a generic signification (e.g. a being which, or 
aliqvid, qvod), or with an adjective characteristic, to define it more pre- 
cisely. This subjunctive is sometimes also used in relative propositions 
which do not complete a conception already presented, but which contain 
a description themselves (by periphrasis) , when we wish to express a 
general idea of a person or thing of a particular nature, constitution, or 
quality, and, at the same time, to draw attention to the bearings of this 
nature or quality on the statement in the main proposition : Hoc non 
erat ejus, qvi innumerabiles mundos mente peragravisset (Cic. 

Finn. II. 31), was not becoming for a man, who , such a man, as. 

Qvi ex ipso audissent, qvum palam multis audientibus loqvere- 
tur, nefaria qvaedam ad me pertulerunt (Cic. ad Att. XI. 8), per- 
sons who : , such persons, as. Qvi audiverant would mean those 

who , the particular persons who. At ille nescio qvi, qvi in scho- 

lis nominari solet, mille et octoginta stadia qvod abesset, videbat 
(Cic. Ac. II. 25), things which were distant, such things as were. Qvod 
aberat would signify some particular thing which was distant. 

Obs. 2. In a similar way, the subjunctive is used in relative proposi- 
tions, which restrict to a certain defined class something that is stated in 
general terms ; particularly, with qvi qvidem (at least, who) and qvi 
modo (who only = if he only) : Ex oratoribus Atticis antiqvissimi 
sunt, qvorum qvidem scripta constent (so far, at least, as their writ- 
ings are to be relied on as authentic) , Pericles et Alcibiades (Cic. de 
Or. II. 22) . Xenocrates unus, qvi deos esse diceret, divinationem 
funditus sustulit (Id. de Div. I. 3). Servus est nemo, qvi modo 
tolerabili condicione sit servitutis, qvi non audaciam civium per- 
horrescat (Id. Cat. IV. 8) . Qvod sciam, qvod meminerim, so far 
as I know, remember = qvantum scio. Pergratum mini feceris, si 
eum, qvod sine molestia tua fiat, juveris (Id. ad Fam. XIII. 23, so 
far as it can be done without inconvenience to yourself. (But we also 
find, with the same signification, Qvae tibi mandavi, velim cures, 
qvod sine tua molestia facere poteris, Id. ad Att. I. 5.) 

§ 365. After a general assertion, that there is or is not something, 
of which a certain relative proposition may be asserted (something 
of such a kind that the latter may be asserted of it) , the relative 
proposition takes the subjunctive ; thus the subjunctive stands after 
the expressions est, qvi ; sunt, reperiuntur, non desunt, qvi ; ex- 
stitit, exstiterunt, exortus est, qvi (exortus est philosophus, qvi) ; 
habeo, qvi (one who) ; est, ubi (there are places where) ; nemo est, 

qvi; nihil est, qvod (qvis est, qvi ?), &c; e.g. : — 

21 



322 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 365 

Sunt, qvi discessum animi a corpore putent esse mortem 
(Cic. Tusc. I. 9). Fuere, qvi crederent, M. Crassum non 
ignarum Catilinae consilii fuisse (Sail. Cat. 17). In omnibus 
seculis pauciores viri reperti sunt, qvi suas cupiditates, qvam 
qvi hostium copias vincerent (Cic. ad Fam, XV. 4). Nemo 
est orator, qvi se Demosthenis similem esse nolit (Id. de Opt. 
Gen. Or. 2). Qvod ex majore parte unamqvemqve rem appellari 
dicunt, est, ubi id valeat (Id. Tusc. V. 8), there are cases, in which 

. Est qvatenus amicitiae dari venia possit (Id. Lael. 17), there 

is a point up to which . Nullas accipio litteras, qvas non statim 

ad te mittam. 

Obs. 1. The poets frequently use the indicative after such of these 
expressions as are affirmative ; e.g. est (sunt), qvi (not after the nega- 
tive, such as nemo est, qvi) • Sunt, qvos curriculo pulverem Olym- 
picum collegisse juvat (Hor. Od. I. 1, 3). Interdum rectum vulgus 
videt ; est, ubi peccat (Id. Ep. II. 1, 63). In good prose- writers, such 
examples are rare (Sunt, qvi ita dicunt, imperia Pisonis superba 
barbaros neqvivisse pati, Sail. Cat. 19), except where a definitive 
pronoun or adjective of number is appended to the affirmative clause ; 
as, sunt multi (sunt multi homines), &c. ; for, in this case, the 
indicative is used as well as the subjunctive : Sunt multi, qvi eripiunt 
aliis, qvod aliis largiantur (Cic. Off. I. 14) . Nonnulli sunt in hoc 
ordine, qvi aut ea, qvae imminent, non videant, aut ea, qvae 
vident, dissimulent (Id. in Cat. I. 12). Duo tempora incide- 
runt, qvibus aliqvid contra Caesarem Pompejo svaserim (Id. Phil. 
II. 10). 

Obs. 2. If a relative proposition belongs to a negative antece- 
dent, of which something definite is predicated (as, nothing is a good), 
it may stand in the indicative, as being subjoined as a mere defini- 
tion : e.g. Nihil bonum est, qvod non eum, qvi id possidet, melio- 
rem facit (Cic. Par. I. 4, nothing, that does not make its jiossessor 
better, is a good) ; or it may be appended in the subjunctive in the man- 
ner above mentioned : Nihil bonum est, qvod non eum, qvi id pos- 
sideat, meliorem faciat, nothing is a good, there is no good which woidd 
not make its possessor better. Nemo rex Persarum potest esse, qvi 
non ante Magorum disciplinam perceperit (Cic. de Biv. I. 41). 

Obs. 3. For qvi non after nemo est, qvod non after nihil est, 
qvin (is, id) may likewise be employed (§ 440, Obs. 3). Where a 
definite case must necessarily be expressed (as it nearly always must, 
if the relative would have been in the accusative), either is must be 
inserted, or (which is to be preferred) the relative retained (qvem non, 
qvod non). 



§ 367 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 323 

§ 366. Relative propositions are put in the subjunctive, when 
they are intended to express the reason of the leading proposition, 
so that qvi approaches to the signification of qvum is. (You are 
to do it, as he who can do it, i.q. since you can do it.) 

Caninius fuit mirifica vigilantia, qvi suo toto consulatu somnum 
non viderit (Cic. ad Fain. VII. 30). Miseret tui me, qvi hunc 
tantrum hominem facias inimicum tibi (Ter. Eun. IV. 7, 32). Ut 
cubitum discessimus (when we were gone to bed) me, qvi ad multam 
noctem vigilassem, artior qvam solebat somnus complexus est 
(Cic. Somn. Scip. 1). O fortunate adolescens, qvi tuae virtutis 
Homerum praeconem inveneris (Id. pro Arch. 10). 

Obs. 1. In many cases, the choice rests with the speaker, whether he 
will expressly show, by the use of the subjunctive, that the relative propo- 
sition contains the reason, or whether he will simply add it in the indica- 
tive as an explanation. Thus, it may be said : Habeo senectuti 
magnam gratiam, qvae mini sermonis aviditatem auxit, potionis 
et cibi sustulit (Cic. Cat. M. 14) ; but he might also have said : auxe- 
rit — sustulerit (since it has, because it has). 

Obs. 2. The assigning of the reason is strengthened by the expres- 
sions utpote qvi, ut qvi (as one who) or praesertim qvi l (especially 
as one who, i.q. especially as he), which are constructed with the sub- 
junctive. Qvippe qvi (properly signifying certainly, as one who , 

certainly, since he ) is constructed both with the subjunctive and, in 

some writers (Sallust, Livy) , with the indicative : Solis candor illus- 
trior est qvam ullius ignis, qvippe qvi immenso mundo tarn longe 
lateqve colluceat (Cic. N. D. II. 15). Animus fortuna non eget, 
qvippe qvae probitatem, industriam, aliasqve artes bonas neqve 
dare neqve eripere cuiqvam potest (Sail. Jug. 1) . 

Obs. 3. The subjunctive is likewise employed in relative propositions, 
which contain an antithesis to the leading proposition (compare what is 
said of qvum, § 358, Obs. 3) : Ego, qvi (although 1) sero ac Ieviter 
Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen, qvum in Ciliciam proficiscens 
Athenas venissem, complures ibi dies sum commoratus (Cic. de 
Or. I. 18). Nosmetipsi, qvi Lycurgei (strict as Ly cur gits) a prin- 
cipio fuissemus, qvotidie demitigamur (Id. ad Att. I. 13) . 

§ 367. A relative proposition constituting a periphrasis may be 
put in the subjunctive with an hypothetical declaration of what will 
happen in case the existence of such a person or thing as that indi- 
cated in the periphrasis should be assumed ; e.g. : — 

1 [Praesertim qui nos non pugnando, sed tacendo superare potuerunt 
(Cic. in Cat. III. 9).] 



324 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 369 

Haec et innumerabilia ex eodem genere qvi videat, nonne 
cogatur confiteri deos esse (Cic. N. D. II. A), if any one sees this, will 

he not be compelled ? Qvi — videt, nonne cogitur ? is not he who 

sees this compelled ? See § 350, a. 

§ 368. Relative propositions stand in the subjunctive, when they 
form constituent parts of an expression (of a thought, resolution, 
&c), which is mentioned in the leading proposition as the expres- 
sion of another party, and do not contain an idea which the speaker 
himself declares as his own : — 

Socrates exsecrari eum solebat, qvi primus utilitatem a jure 

sejunxisset (Cic. Legg. I. 12), who had first ; whom Socrates 

himself thought of as the author of this separation. Nemo extulit 
eum verbis, qvi ita dixisset, ut qvi adessent, intelligerent, qvid 
diceret (Id. de Or. III. 14), him, who (i.q. any one, because he), accord- 
ing to his view, had so spoken . Paetus omnes libros, qvos fra- 

ter suus reliqvisset, mihi donavit (Id. ad Att. II. 1), which his 
brother might have left; which his brother, as he believed, had left. 
With a different sense, it would be : qvos frater ejus reliqvit, which 
his brother left. In Hispaniis prorogatum veteribus praetoribus 
imperium, cum exercitibus, qvos haberent (Liv. XL. 18 ; expressed 
as a part of the senatusconsultum.) 

Obs. The thought mentioned in the leading proposition may be the 
speaker's own, if it be presented as one that he entertained at some other 
time : Occurrebant (I called to mind) colles campiqve et Tiberis 
et hoc coelum, sub qvo natus educatusqve essem (Liv. V. 54) . 
Sometimes, there is only a slight difference between a relative proposi- 
tion giving a part of another person's thought (in the subjunctive) and 
the same proposition giving the speaker's own thought (in the indica- 
tive) ; e.g. Majores natu nil rectum putant, nisi qvod sibi placue- 
rit, or nisi qvod ipsis placuit. (The subjunctive shows that they are 
conscious of the process of thought which determines their judgment. 
Compare § 490, c, Obs-. 3, respecting sui and suus.) l 

§ 369. As in relative propositions (§ 368), so also the subjunctive 
is used in other subordinate propositions, which supplement the 
thought of the leading proposition, and are, so to speak, parts of it. 
Thus, for instance, in conditional propositions : Rex praemium pro- 
posuit (praemium propositum est) si qvis hostem occidisset (§ 348, 

1 Alius alia causa allata, qvam sibi ad proficiscendum necessariam esse 
diceret, petebat,ut sibiCaesaris voluntate discedere liceret(Caes. 13. G. I. 89). 
Diceret stands in the subjunctive instead of qvae — necessaria QSSGt (the reason which, 
as he said, compelled him). See § 357, a, Obs. 2. 



§ 369 / THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 325 

Obs. 3. Compare what is said of causal propositions, § 357, a.) 
The subjunctive is for the same reason used in all subordinate pro- 
positions (whether relative or connected by conjunctions), which 
are added to complete an idea expressed by an infinitive, or a propo- 
sition standing in the subjunctive, or in the accusative with the 
infinitive, the contents of which subordinate proposition are asserted 
by the speaker not simply as an actual fact, but only as a constitu- 
ent part of the idea stated in the infinitive or subjunctive (oratio 
obliqya, indirect discourse). If, on the other hand, a remark or 
explanation by the speaker himself (which may be omitted without 
prejudice to the leading idea) or a description of something that 
actually exists independently of the contents of the main proposi- 
tion is introduced into the midst of a subjunctive or infinitive pro- 
position, the indicative is employed. 

a. Potentis est facere qvod velit. (Homo potens facit qvod 
vult.) Non dubitavi id a te petere, qvod mihi esset omnium 
maximum maximeqve necessarium (Cic. ad Fain. II. 6. Id a te 
peto, qvod mihi est maximum.) Qvod me admones, ut me inte- 
grum, qvoad possim, servem, gratum est (Id. ad Att. VII. 26. 
Serva te integrum, qvoad poteris). Rogavit, ut, qvoniam sibi 
vivo non subvenisset, mortem suam ne inultam esse pateretur 
(Id. Div. I. 27. Qvoniam mihi vivo non subvenisti, mortem meam 
ne inultam esse passus sis). In Horcensio memoria fuit tanta, 
ut, qvae secum commentatus esset, ea sine scripto verbis eisdem 
redderet, qvibus cogitavisset (Id. Brut. 88. Hortensius, qvae 
secum erat commentatus, ea verbis eisdem reddebat, qvibus 
cogitaverat). Mos est Athenis, laudari in concione eos, qvi sint 
in proeliis interfecti (Id. Or. 44). Si luce qvoqve canes latrent, 
qvum deos salutatum aliqvi venerint, crura iis suffringantur, qvod 
acres sint etiam turn, qvum suspicio nulla sit (Id. Bosc^ Am. 20. 
The actual occurrence would be thus expressed : canes latrant, qvum 
deos salutatum aliqvi venerunt, and, crura iis suffringuntur, qvod 
acres sunt etiam turn, qvum suspicio nulla est). Et earum re- 
rum, qvibus abundaremus, exportatio, et earum, qvibus egeremus, 
invectio nulla esset, nisi his muneribus homines fungerentur (Id. 
Off. II. 3. Earum rerum, qvibus abundamus, exportatio nulla est 
The excess and deficiency also form a part of the hypothesis : Even if loe 
had a superabundance of any thing, it could not be exported ) . 

b. Apud Hypanam fluvium, qvi ab Europae parte in Pontum 
influit (observation of the narrator himself) , Aristoteles ait, bestio- 
las qvasdam nasci, qvae unum diem vivant (part of the assertion of 
Aristotle (Id. Tusc. I. 39) . Qvis potest esse tarn aversus a vero, 



326 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 369 

qvi neget, haec omnia, qvae videmus (the whole of this visible uni- 
verse), deorum immortalium potestate administrari (Cic. in Cat, 
III. 9). 

Obs. 1. In many cases, a relative clause may either contain an inde- 
pendent idea, or describe an existing class of persons or things, or sim- 
ply give some part of a thought to which reference has already been 
made : Eloqvendi vis efficit, ut ea, qvae ignoramus, discere, et ea, 
qvae scimus, alios docere possimus (Cic. N. D. II. 59). Here ea, 
qvae ignoramus and ea, qvae scimus are designated as two existing 
classes of objects ; but it might also have been expressed : ut ea, quae 
ignoremus, discere, et ea, qvae sciamus, alios docere possimus, 
what may be unknown, or known to us. If, when the leading proposi- 
tion is in the perfect, a general idea is expressed in such a subordinate 
proposition not in the present, but in the imperfect, it is thereby shown 
to be a part of the thought in the main proposition, and dependent on 
it: Rex parari ea jussit, qvae ad bellum necessaria essent; but, 
rex arma, tela, machinas, ceteraqve, qvae in bello necessaria sunt, 
parari jussit. 

Obs. 2. The historians not unfrequently use the indicative irregu- 
larly in relative circumlocutions and definitions, which are yet naturally 
or necessarily to be understood as parts of a thought quoted as another's : 
e.g. Scaptius infit, annum se tertium et octogesium agere, et in eo 
agro, de qvo agitur. militasse (Liv. III. 71. In eo agro, de qvo 
agitur, militavi). C. Mario magna atqve mirabilia portendi harus- 
pex dixerat ; proinde, qvae animo agitabat, fretus dis agere t (Sail. 
Jug. 63. Proinde, qvae animo agitas, fretus dis age!) In other 
authors, the indicative is rarely retained in such propositions : Tertia 
est sententia, ut, quanti quisque se ipse facit, tanti fiat ab amicis 
(Cic. Lsel. 16). 

Obs. 3. It may be especially noticed, that the particle dum is often 
put, by the poets and later writers, with the historical present (§ 336, 
Obs. 2) in the indicative, though the proposition is a part of another 
person's thought, which- is expressed in the infinitive: Die, hospes, 
Spartae, nos te hie vidisse jacentes, dum Sanctis patriae legibus 
obseqvimur (Cic. poet. Tusc. 1. 42). (More accurately: Video, dum 
breviter voluerim dicere, dictum esse a me paullo obscurius, Cic. 
deOr. I. 41.) 

Obs. 4. Sometimes a second subordinate proposition is, for the sake of 
stating a circumstance more fully, added to a subjunctive clause which 
is a part neither of another's thought, nor of a general idea expressed 
by the infinitive, but a clause, for instance, expressing time or cause with 
qvum. In such cases, the added subordinate clause is not unfre- 
quently in the subjunctive, although the substance of it might have been 



§ 370 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 327 

expressed in the indicative as something actually true : De his rebus 
disputatum est qvondam in Hortensii villa, qvae est ad Baulos 
qvum eo postridie venissemus, qvam apud Catulum fuissemus 
(Cic. Acad. II. 3). 

§ 370. Besides the rules which have thus far been given for the 
subjunctive, it is particularly to be noticed, that the second person 
singular of the subjunctive is used of an assumed person represent- 
ing a single indefinite subject (some one, one), which is imagined, 
and, so to speak, addressed, in order to express something indefi- 
nite. In leading propositions, this form is found only in conditional 
discourse, in potential expressions, and questions concerning that 
which can and will happen (§§ 350 and 353) ; but in subordinate 
propositions, with conjunctions and in relative propositions (with qvi 
or an indefinite relative), and in commands and prohibitions (see 
on the imperative, Chap. V.) : — 

Aeqvabilitatem conservare non possis, si aliorum naturam imi- 
tans omittas tuam (Cic. Off. I. 31. Of definite subject, it would be, 
conservare non possumus, si omittimus.) Dicas (credas, putes) 
adductum propius frondere Tarentum (Hor. Ep. I. 16, 11) =dicat 
aliqvis). Qvem neqve gloria neqve pericula excitant, neqvicqvam 
hortere (Sail. Cat. 58) . Crederes victos esse (Liv. II. 43), one might 
have believed they were conquered. (Concerning the imperfect, see § 350, 
a.) Tanto amore possessiones suas amplexi tenebant, ut ab iis 
membra divelli citius posse diceres (Cic. pro Sull. 20). Ut sunt, 
qvi urbanis rebus bellicas anteponant, sic reperias multos, qvibus 
periculosa consilia qvietis splendidiora videantur (Id. Off. I. 24) . 
Ubi istum invenias, qvi honorem amici anteponat suo? (Id. Lael. 
17. Of an actual subject : Ubi eos inveniemus, qvi opes amicitiae 
non anteponant ? (Id. ibid.) Bonus segnior fit, ubi negligas (Sail. 
Jug. 31). If not in the second person, it would be expressed, ubi neg- 
ligitur). Qvum aetas extrema advenit, turn illud, qvod praeteriit, 
effluxit ; tantum remanet, qvod virtute et recte factis consecutus 
sis (Cic. Cat. M. 19 = consecuti sumus, consecutus aliqvis est). 
Conformatio sententiarum permanet, qvibuscunqve verbis uti 
velis (Id. de Or. III. 52 = utimur). 

Obs. 1. A conditional proposition of this kind in the subjunctive does 
not require the subjunctive in the leading proposition : Mens qvoqve 
et animus, nisi tanqvam lumini oleum instilles, exstinguuntur 
senectute (Cic. Cat. M. 11) ; except when the conditional proposition 
contains a merely imaginary case, in which something would occur : Si 
constitueris te cuipiam advocatum in rem praesentem esse ven- 



328 LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§ 372 



turum atqve interim graviter aegrotare filius coeperit, non sit 
contra orncium non facere, qvod dixeris (Cic. Off. I. 10), assuming 

that some one had , it would then . 

Obs. 2. Tu is very seldom inserted when the second person is em- 
ployed in this way (e.g. Virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id 
non agas, conseqvitur, Cic. Tusc. I. 38) ; on the other hand, te, tui, 
tibi, tuus, can refer to such a subject. In the same way, to denote 
an indefinite and assumed subject, te is put in the accusative with the 
infinitive, as only the assumed object of a judgment (see § 398, a) ; e.g. 
Nullum est testimonium victoriae certius, qvam, qvos saepe 
metueris, eos te vinctos ad supplicium duci videre (Cic. Verr. 
V. 26). 



APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III. 

OF OBJECT-CLAUSES IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE, AND OF THE PARTI- 
CLES USED WITH THEM. 

§ 371. Since the idea of an action or condition as the object of a 
verb or phrase may be expressed not only by a proposition in the 
subjunctive, but also by the infinitive (accusative with the infini- 
tive), and the subjunctive propositions of this class are formed with 
various particles according to the nature of the predicate in the 
leading proposition, rules will here be given for the use of these 
propositions, and of the particles proper to each. (Those cases in 
which the object is expressed by an accusative with the infinitive, 
or an infinitive alone, will be treated of in the sixth chapter.) Gen- 
erally speaking, an object is expressed by a proposition in the sub- 
junctive after all verbs and phrases which signify an effort or 
activity, or indicate that something happens. 

Obs. In English, an infinitive is very often used where an object-clause 
in the subjunctive would occur in Latin. 

§ 372. a. A proposition with ut is subjoined to all those verbs 
or phrases, which, in one way or another, signify to bring about an 
occurrence, or to labor, to contribute, to interest one's self, to bring it 
about; as: — 

(a) Facio, efficio, perficio, conseqvor, asseqvor, adipiscor, im- 
petro, pervincio ; consvetudo, natura fert : (b) oro, rogo, peto, 
precor, obsecro, flagito, postulo, euro, video (look to it, that) , pro- 



§ 372 OBJECT-CLAUSES. 329 

video, prospicio, svadeo, persvadeo, eenseo (to advise), hortor, 
adhortor, moneo, admoneo, permoveo, adduco, incito, impello, 
cogo, impero, mando, praecipio, dico (to say to a person, that he is 

to ) , scribo, mitto (to write to any one, send to any one, bring or- 

ders to anyone, that he is to — ), edico, concedo, permitto (sino), 
statuo (to determine that some one is to) , constituo, decerno, volo 

(to wish, that some one ), nolo, malo, opto (that some one ), 

studeo (to exert one^s self, endeavor that some one ) , nitor, con- 

tendo, elaboro, pugno, id ago, operam do, legem fero, lex est, sena- 
tus consultum fit, auctor sum, consilium do, magna cupiditas est 
(a vehement longing that something should take place), &c. Sol efficit, 
ut omnia floreant. Cura, ut valeas. Rogavi, ut proficiscerentur. 
Dolabella ad me scripsit, ut qvam primum in Italiam venirem 
(Cic. ad Att. VII. 1). Elaborandum est, ut nosmet ipsi nobis 
mederi possimus (Id. Tusc. III. 3). Multi turn qvum mazime fal- 
lunt, id agunt, ut boni viri esse videantur (Id. Off. I. 13). 

Obs. It may be observed of the particle ut (uti), that it has its root 
in the same interrogative and relative pronominal stem from which uter, 
ubi, &c, are derived, and therefore originally signifies how, or (rela- 
tively) as (§ 201, 5). From how is deduced the signification that, as 
applied to express a purpose and the object of the verb (to exert one's 
self, how one may attain a thing) , and from the relative usage partly the 
signification as soon as (ut veni, abiit), partly that of so that (just as the 
pronoun qvi acquires the signification of so that he) . Then the original 
signification is still further lost, so that the word only marks out a propo- 
sition indefinitely and generally as the object or complement of another 
(with verbs of happening) . 

b. If the object is expressed negatively (to bring it about, to 
exert one's self, that a thing may not happen), the particle ne is used 
instead of ut (also ut — ne). Peto, non ut aliqvid novi decerna- ' 
tur, sed ne qvid novi decernatur (Cic ad Fam. II. 7). Vos 
adepti estis, ne qvem civem metueretis (Id. pro Mil. 13). After 
the verbs which signify to bring about, to effect, ut non is also 
made use of. See on this § 456, with Obs. 3. 

Obs. 1. We should remark the expression videre, ne, to look to it, 
that not, to see whether perhaps not. Vide, ne mea conjectura sit 
verior (Cic. pro. Cluent. 35). Hence, vide ne has sometimes nearly 
the signification of I fear, that. 

Obs. 2. Those verbs that signify to wish that a thing may happen 
(volo, &c, placet, it is determined, sometimes studeo, postulo), gov- 
ern also an accusative with the infinitive : Volo te hoc scire. See § 396. 
Volo (nolo, malo) is commonly used with the subjunctive without ut 



330 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 372 

only in short and unambiguous expressions (see Obs. 4), otherwise with 
the accusative and infinitive: Qvid vis faciam? (Ter. Eun. V. 9, 24). 
Vis ergo experiamur? (Virg. B. III. 28). Tu ad me de rebus 
omnibus scribas velim (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 13). (More rarely: 
Volo, ut mihi respondeas, Cic. in Vat. 6). Sino, to let, permit, 
is used in the same way ; e.g. sine, vivam (rarely, ut vivam) ; other- 
wise, in the infinitive (§ 390) or the accusative with the infinitive 
(§ 396). 

Obs. 3. With some of those verbs which signify to influence others to 
do something, the action is sometimes expressed by the infinitive alone, 
as after moneo, and particularly cogo. See § 390. Some may be 
followed by ad with the gerund : Impello aliqvem ad faciendum ali- 
qvid. 

Obs. 4. After those verbs which denote a wish, combined with an 
influence over others (particularly, to advise, to beg, to persuade) , and 
after fac and faxo (but with these exceptions, not after facio and the 
others which signify to effectuate, to obtain) ut may be omitted, and the 
subjunctive alone employed, if the construction is free from ambiguity, 
especially if the subjunctive stands near the governing verb : Die veniat. 
Fac cogites, qvi sis. Sine te exorem (Ter. Andr. V. 3, 30) . Caesar 
Labieno mandat, Remos reliqvosqve Belgas adeat atqve in officio 
contineat (Caes. B. G. III. 11). Albinus Massivae persvadet, 
qvoniam ex stirpe Masinissae sit, regnum Numidiae ab senatu 
petat (Sail. Jug. 35). Jugurtha oppidanos hortatur, moenia de- 
fendant (Id. ibid. 56). 

Obs. 5. Some of the verbs and phrases here mentioned have, at the 
same time, another signification, in which they denote an opinion, or 
the eliciting of an opinion ; and then they govern an accusative with the 
infinitive: as, statuo, to assume; decerno, to determine, decide; volo, 
to maintain (of philosophical dicta) ; contendo, to maintain ; con- 
cedo, to grant ; persvadeo, to make a person believe ; moneo, to remind 
one (that so and so is) ; efficio (conficio), to make out, prove; cogo, to 
conclude, make good; adducor, to be induced to believe; auctor sum, 
to assure, — e.g. concedo, non esse miseros, qvi mortui sunt (Cic. 
Tusc. I. 7). Dicaearchus vult efficere, animos esse mortales (Id. 
ib. I. 31). Yet concedo, contendo, efficio, adducor, and a few simi- 
lar expressions, are, in consequence of their original signification, also 
used with ut ; Ex qvo efficitur, ut, qvod sit honestum, id sit solum 
bonum (Cic. Tusc. V. 15 ; but also Ex qvo efficitur, honestate una 
vitam contineri beatam, Id. ibid.). Facio, signifying to represent a 
person as doing a thing, has an accusative with the infinitive, or the 
present participle in apposition to the object (as, induco aliqvem 
loqventem) ; Isocratem Plato admirabiliter in Phaedro laudari 



§ 373 OBJECT-CLAUSES. 331 

fecit (Cic. de Opt. Gen. Or. 6). Xenophon Socratem disputantem 
facit, formam dei qvaeri non oportere (Id. N. D. I. 12). Folyphe- 
mum Homerus cum ariete colloqventem facit ejusqve laudare 
fortunas, qvod, qva vellet, ingredi posset, et qvae vellet, attinge- 
ret (Id. Tusc. V. 39). Fac, suppose, assume, always has the accusative 
with the infinitive ; e.g. Fac, qvaeso, qvi ego sim, esse te (Cic. 
Fam. VII. 23). (Facio, with an accusative with the infinitive, in 
the signification to cause, is poetical : Nati me coram cernere letum 
fecisti, Virg. .En. II. 538). 

Obs. 6. After the words causa, ratio, and argumentum, and 
phrases of a similar signification, the object is expressed by a proposi- 
tion with one of the particles qvare, qvamobrem, cur (reason, wluj, i.e. 
reason to). \Ve have also simply est (nihil est, qvid est) cur (qvamob- 
rem, qvare, qvod), one lias reason (no reason) : Multae sunt causae 
qvamobrem nunc hominem cupiam abducere (Ter. Eun. I. 2, 6o). 
Qvid fuit causae, cur in Africam Caesarem non seqverere? (Cic. 
Phil. II. 29.) Nihil affert Zeno, qvare mundum ratione uti pute- 
mus (Id. N. D. III. 9), no reason why we should believe. Qvid est 
cur tu in isto loco sedeas ? (Id. pro Cluent. 53.) Non est, qvod 
invideas istis, qvos maguos felicesqve populus vocat (Senec. Ep. 
94). (Very rarely, causa est, ut.) 1 

§ 373. With verbs and phrases, which denote in general that a 
thing happens or is going on, is on the point of happening, a propo- 
sition with ut is used, to signify what happens, &c. ; thus with fit, 
futurum est, accidit, contingit, evenit, usu venit, est {it is the 
case, that) seqvitur, restat, reliqvum est, relinqvitur, superest, 
proximum est (the next action, the next thing is) extremum est, 
prope est, longe abest, tantirm abest. (In negative propositions 
ut non, and not ne, is employed : see § 456, with Obs. 3.) 

Accidit, ut illo tempore in urbe essem. Saepe fit, ut ii, qvi 
debeant (owe us money), non respondeant ad tempus (Cic. ad Att. 
XVI. 2). Si haec enuntiatio vera non est, seqvitur, ut falsa sit 
(Id. de Fat. 12). Restat, ut doceam, omnia., qvae sint in hoc 
mundo, hominum causa facta esse (Id. X. D. II. 61). Proximum 
est, ut doceam, deorum providentia mundum administrari (Id. 
ib. II. 29). Propius nihil est factum qvam ut Cato occideretur 
(Id. ad Qv. Fr. I. 2, 5) . (So also : Servilius ad id, qvod de pecu- 

1 Magna causa absolutionis Fonteji est, ne qva insignis huic imperio 
ignominia suscipiatur (Cic. pro Font. 12). A weighty reason for acquitting Fonteius is, 
that no signal disgrace be incurred (i.e. the -wish to avoid, etc. — . A proposition expressing a 

purpose, like : suscipienda bella sunt ob earn causam ut sine injuria vivatur, 
Cic Off. 1. 11). 



332 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 374 

nia credita jus non dixerat, adjiciebat {added this proceeding), ut ne 
delectum qvidem militum haberet, Liv. II. 27.) 

Obs. 1. Here we should also notice the expressions necesse est and 
oportet, it is necessary, which are constructed sometimes with the sub- 
junctive without ut (necesse est, ut is rare) , sometimes with the accu- 
sative and infinitive : Leuctrica pugna immortalis sit necesse est 
(Corn. Epam. 10). Corpus mortale interire necesse est. Ex 
rerum cognitione efflorescat oportet oratio (Cic. de Or. I. 6). 
(Oportet, used to signify duty, always has the accusative with the infini- 
tive. Without a definite subject, it is expressed thus : necesse est ire, 
oportet ire.) (Concerning licet with the subjunctive, see § 389, 
Obs. 5.) 

Obs. 2. When seqvitur denotes a logical conclusion, it may have the 
accusative with the infinitive, but is generally constructed with ut. Con- 
tingit (mini) signifying I succeed, aud restat (it remains) are also, by 
the poets and later writers, constructed with the simple infinitive : Non 
cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. 1. 17, 36). (The 
following is the more usual construction : Thrasybulo contigit, ut pa- 
triam liberaret, Corn. Thras. 1.) 

Obs. 3. The verb accedit, to this is to be added (by which the hearer 
is referred to some circumstance yet remaining) , is either similarly con- 
structed with ut, or it is followed by an indicative proposition with qvod 
which states the circumstance (compare § 398, b) : Ad Appii Claudii 
senectutem accedebat etiam, ut caecus esset (Cic. Cat. M. 6). 
Accedit, qvod patrem plus etiam, qvam tu scis, amo (Id. ad 
Att. XIII. 21. (If a circumstance is stated, not as actually existing, 
but only as conditional and assumed, qvod cannot stand, but only ut ; 
e.g. Si vero illud qvoqve accedet, ut dives sit reus, difficillima 
causa erit. On the other hand, there is no variation in the construction 

of adde qvod, add the circumstance, that ) . (Concerning exspecto, 

ut, see § 360, Obs. 1). 

§ 374. A substantive or pronoun with sum, which suggests that 
a thing happens or is to happen, is followed by a proposition with 
ut, to show what the preceding noun or pronoun refers to, and how 
it manifests itself: — 

Est hoc commune vitium in magnis liberisqve civitatibus, ut 
invidia gloriae comes sit (Corn. Chabr. 3). Mos est hominum, ut 
nolint eundum pluribus rebus excellere (Cic. Brut. 21). Cultus 
deorum est optimus, ut (consists in this, that) eos semper pura, inte- 
gra, incorrupta mente veneremur (Id. N". D. II. 28). Altera est res 
(the second thing required is) ut res geras magnas et arduas plenas- 
qve laborum (Id. Off. I. 20). Fuit hoc in M. Crasso, ut existimari 
vellet nostrorum hominum prudentiam Graecis anteferre (Id. de 



§ 375 OBJECT-CLAUSES. 333 

Or. II. 1) . Adhuc in hac sum sententia, nihil ut facianms, nisi qvod 
Caesar velle videatur (Id. ad Fam. IV. 4) . In eo est, ut proficis- 
car. 

Obs. 1. Such expressions as mos est, cultus est optimus (with- 
out a pronoun) are sometimes also completed by a simple infinitive : 
Virginibus Tyriis mos est gestare pharetram (Virg. iEn. I. 336). 

Obs. 2. If a judgment is pronounced concerning the character of an 
action that is only supposed (not declared as of actual occurrence) by 
means of an adjective with sum, or some equivalent phrase, as aeqvum 
est, optimum est, &c, magna laus est (it is a very meritorious thing), 
qvi probari potest ?(how can it be approved ofV) qvam habet aeqvita- 
tem ? (ivhat fairness is there in it ?) the subject is expressed either by 
an infinitive alone or an accusative with the infinitive (§ 398, a). Yet 
such propositions are also found with ut, when it is intended to denote, 
at the same time, the reality or falsity, possibility or impossibility of the 
action ; e.g. Non est verisimile, ut Chrysogonus horum servorum 
litteras adamarit aut humanitatem (Cic. Rose. Am. 41). Qvid tarn 
inauditum qvam eqvitem Romanum triumphare ? Qvid tarn inu- 
sitatum qvam ut, qvum duo consules fortissimi essent, eqves 
Romanus ad bellum maximum pro consule mitteretur ? (Id. pro 
Leg. Man. 21). Magnificum illud etiam Romanisqve gloriosum 
ut Graecis de philosophia litteris non egeant (Id. Div. II. 2) . 

§ 375. a. A proposition with ne is put after those verbs, which 
in themselves express a hindering and resisting force (working to 
prevent a thing from happening) ; as, impedio, prohibeo, deterreo, 
obsisto, obsto, officio, repugno, intercedo, interdico, teneo (to 
withhold, teneo me, contineo), tempero, recuso, caveo (to avoid 
doing a thing, to take measures, that so and so may not — )', &c. : — 

Impedior dolore animi, ne de hujus miseria plura dicam (Cic. 
pro Sull. 33) . Pythagoreis inter dictum erat, ne faba vescerentur 
(Id. Div. I. 30). Histiaeus Milesius obstitit, ne res conficeretur 
(Corn. Milt. 3). Regulus, ne sententiam diceret, recusavit (Cic. 
Off. III. 27). Cavebam, ne cui suspicionem darem (Id. ad Fam. 

in. i2). 

Obs. 1. Cave is often used without ne : Cave putes, cave facias. 
(Sometimes recuso, to refuse ; and caveo, to avoid, take the infini- 
tive : Cave id petere a populo Romano, qvod jure tibi negabitur 

(Sail. Jug. 64) . (Caveo, ut , to take care that, make arrangements 

that .) 

Obs. 2. Impedio and prohibeo often have the infinitive (§ 390) : 
Me et Sulpicium impedit pudor a Crasso hoc exqvirere (Cic. de 
Or. I. 35). Num igitur ignobilitas sapientem beatum esse prohi- 



334 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 375 

bet ? (When, on the other hand, these verbs are constructed with ne, 
the accusative is seldom retained. We find pudor impedit, ne exqvi- 
ram, but less frequently, me impedit, ne exqviram.) 

b. To those verbs and phrases, which signify to hinder and to be 
a hindrance (impedio, prohibeo, officio, obsto, obsisto, deterreo, 
teneo, and per me fit, per me stat, it is chargeable to me, moror, 
in mora sum, &c), the objective proposition with qvominus (lite- 
rally, that so much the less) may be subjoined : — 

Hiemem credo adhuc prohibuisse, qvominus de te certum 
haberemus (Cic. ad Fam. XII. 5) . Caesar cognovit, per Afranium 
stare, qvominus dimicaretur (Cses. B. C. I. 41). Hanc ego causam, 
qvominus novum consilium capiamus, imprimis magnam puto 
(Sail. Cat. 51), of a reason against a thing. Qvominus is used in 
the same way after other verbs, which either by themselves signify resist- 
ance, or acquire such a meaning from the context (e.g. pugno, to con- 
tend that not) , and are qualified by a negative (non, vix) or take 

the form of a question which implies a negative ; e.g. Non recusabo, 
qvominus omnes mea scripta legant (Cic. Finn. I. 3). Hoc fecisti, 
ne pupillo tutores consulerent, qvominus fortunis omnibus everte- 
retur (Id. Verr. III. 7). 

c. After verbs and phrases, which signify to resist and detain 
from, or to omit (praetermitto, and expressions which acquire this 
meaning from the context, especially facio and causa est), to delay, 
as cunctor, exspecto, as well as after abest, dubito, and dubium 
est, qvin, that not, is used to designate the object, when the negative 
force of the verb or 'phrase is cancelled by being qualified by a nega- 
tive or by taking the interrogative form: — 

Vix me contineo, qvin involem in ilium (Ter. Eun. V. 2, 20). 
Non possumus, qvin alii a nobis dissentiant, recusare (Cic. Ac. II. 
3) . Facere non potui, qvin tibi et sententiam et voluntatem de- 
clararem meam (Id. ad Fam. VI. 13). Clamabant, exspectari diu- 
tius non oportere, qvin ad castra iretur (Caes. B. G. III. 24). 
Haud multum abfuit, qvin Ismenias interficeretur (Liv. XLII. 44) . 
Qvid est causae, qvin decemviri coloniam in Janiculum possint 
deducere (Cic. de Leg. Agr. II. 27) . Agamemno non dubitat, qvin 
brevi sit Troja peritura (Id. Cat. M. 10). Non erat dubium, qvin 
Helvetii plurimum possent (Cses. B. G. I. 3). Dubitare qvisqvam 
potest, qvin hoc multo sit honestius ? 

Obs. 1. Some verbs, therefore [compare b and c], even when they 
are not qualified by a negative, are followed by qvominus and ne 
interchangeably (prohibeo ne and qvominus) ; and some verbs, when 



§376 



OBJECT-CLAUSES. 335 



qualified by a negative, are followed by either qvominus or qvin 
(e.g. non recuso, qvominus and qvin) ; but qvin often stands where 
qvominus would be inadmissible. But after the verbs which prop- 
erly signify to hinder and forbid (impedio, prohibeo, intercedo, and 
interdico), qvominus is regularly used, qvin scarcely ever ; afcer those 
which signify to omit (absum and dubito), only qvin. Qvin alone is 
sometimes used when the preceding proposition is qualified by some 
word expressing limitation (paullum, perpauci, aegre), instead of 
a negative ; e.g. Paullum abfuit, qvin Fabius Varum interficeret 
(Caes. B. C. II. 35). (So also Dubita, si potes, qvin, i.q. dubitare 
non potes, qvin). Instead of facere non possum, qvin, i" cannot 
refrain from (fieri non potest, qvin), we may also say ut — non (§ 372, 
b, and § 373) : Fieri non potest, ut, qvem video te praetore in Sicilia 
fuisse, eum tu in tua provincia non cognoveris (Cic. Yerr. II. 77). 

Obs. 2. Of the verb dubito, it is to be observed, that, when used 
affirmatively, it is always followed by an indirect question : (dubito an, 
dubito an non. See § 453). After non dubito (dubium non est), 
we find also, in some writers (Cornelius, Livy), an accusative with the 
infinitive, instead of qvin. (Non dubitabant, deletis exercitibus, 
hostem ad oppugnandam urbem venturum, Liv. XXII. 55.) Non 
dubito (qvis dubitat ?) with an infinitive (non dubito facere, di- 
cere, &c), signifies 1 have no scruple, do not hesitate. Yet in this signi- 
fication, too, it is sometimes put with qvin ; e.g. Nolite dubitare, qvin 
uni Fompejo credatis omnia (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 23). 

Obs. 3. Qvin is rarely found with negative verbs, which express an 
opinion and explanation (non nego, qvis ignorat), instead of the 
accusative with the infinitive : Qvis ignorat, qvin tria Graecorum 
genera sint (Cic. pro Flacc. 27), instead of tria Graecorum genera 
esse. 

Obs. 4. Qvin is derived from the old relative and interrogative abla- 
tive qvi and the negative particle, and consequently its primitive signifi- 
cation is how not {so that not). Hence arises the signification why not** 
(qvin imus ? § 351, Obs. 3) ; and from this again the signification yes, 
indeed (ivhy not, indeed ?) . 

§ 376. After verbs and phrases of fearing, the thing feared (that, 
which is not wished for) is distinguished by ne (in English that) 
and the thing wished for (which, it is feared, will not happen) by 
Ut (in English that not) or ne non (that not), ne nullus, &c. : — 

Vereor, ne pater veniat (I fear that my father will come) ; vereor, 
ut pater veniat (that he will not come) ; vereor (non vereor), ne 
pater non veniat. Pavor ceperat milites, ne mortiferum esset 
vulnus Scipionis (Liv. XXIV. 42). Omnes labores te excipere 



336 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 377 

video; timeo, ut sustineas (Cic. ad Fam. XIV. 2). Vereor, ne 
consolatio nulla possit vera reperiri (Id. ibid. VI. 1) . Non ve- 
reor, ne tua virtus opinioni hominum non respondeat (Id. ibid. 
II. 5) . Senator es suos ipsi cives timebant, ne Romana plebs metu 
perculsa pacem acciperet (Liv. II. 9) ; in this example, an accusa- 
tive object also depends on timeo. In the same way, ne or ne non 
stands after periculum (danger that, that not) : Periculum est, ne 
ille te verbis obruat (Cic. Div. in Caec. 14). Nullum periculum 
est, ne locum non invenias. 

Obs. Metuo, timeo, vereor, to be afraid (not have the courage) to do 
a thing, to shrink from doing it, are followed by the infinitive ; as, 
vereor facere. But in good prose only vereor is so used : Vereor te 
laudare praesentem (Cic. N. D. I. 21). (Timeo and metuo are 
rarely found with the accusative and infinitive, with the signification, to 
expect with apprehension that something will happen.) 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

§ 377. The tenses are in general distinguished and expressed in 
the subjunctive in the same way as in the indicative, both by the 
simple forms and by those compounded with participles (amatus 
sim, &c), so that we shall here only notice what is peculiar to the 
way of expressing time in the subjunctive: — 

Pater aberat. Qvum (since, because) pater abesset, eram in 
timore. Pater profecturus erat. Qvum pater profecturus esset 
(was on the point of departing), valde occupatus eram. Paene 
cecidi. Vides, qvam paene ceciderim. Audivit aliqvid. Audiv- 
erit aliqvid, legerit (Cic. de Or. II. 20), he must have heard and read 
something. Qvis putare potest, plus egisse Dionysium turn, 
qvum eripuerit civibus suis libertatem, qvam Archimedem, qvum 
sphaeram effecerit (Id. R. P. I. 17 = Nihilo plus egit Dionysius 
turn, qvum eripuit c. s. 1., qvam Archimedes, qvum sphaeram 
effecit.) 

Obs. 1. The difference between amatus sim and amatus fuerim is 
like that between amatus sum and amatus fui ; § 344. Amatus 
fuissem is also put for amatus essem, as amatus fueram for amatus 
eram. 

Ons. 2. The imperfect forem (§ 108, Obs. 3) is employed in the same 
signification as essem, especially in conditional propositions (would be) 



§ 378 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 337 

and those expressive of a purpose (ut foret, ne foret, qvi foret). In 
the compound tenses (amatus forem, amaturus forem) many writers 
(Sallust, Livy, the poets) use forem exactly like essem ; e.g. Gaudebat 
consul, qva parte copiarum alter consul victus foret, se vicisse 
(Liv. XXI. 53). (Cicero does not use it at all in the compound tenses, 
and elsewhere very rarely.) 

§ 378. a. The present subjunctive is in many instances employed, 
when the thing represented is properly future, partly because the 
relation of time is sufficiently evident from the nature and construc- 
tion of the subjunctive proposition, partly because we do not in 
idea accurately distinguish between the present and the future (as 
in assumptions, wishes, &c). Hence the subjunctive has no simple 
form of the future in the active, and no future at all in the passive. 

1. Thus the present is used in leading propositions in the sub- 
junctive, namely, in conditional propositions (§ 347, b), in potential 
propositions relating to a thing which can or is to be done (§ 350 
and § 353), and in wishes (§ 351). For examples, see the paragraphs 
referred to. But in potential propositions the future perfect is 
sometimes employed as a hypothetical future. See § 350 and 
§ 380. 

2. Propositions which denote a design and object are also ex- 
pressed with the present (the effect being conceived of as contem- 
poraneous with the act of the main proposition). See the examples 
in §§ 354 and 355, with § 371 and the following. 

Consequently, if past time be spoken of, the imperfect is used 
(and not the futurum in praeterito) : Rogabat frater, ut eras 
venires (not venturus esses). See examples elsewhere. 

Obs. After non dubito qvin, and those phrases which denote the 
relation of one proposition to another in the most general way- (est, 
seqvitur, accidit) the future is employed to express what will happen at 
a future time : Non est dubium, qvin legiones venturae non sint 
(Cic. ad Fam. II. 17). (But in familiar language the present is also 
made use of: Hoc haud dubium est, qvin Chremes tibi non det 
gnatam, Ter. Andr. II. 3, 17) ; [as in English : It is clear enough, that 
you don't get the old man's daughter, instead of will not get"]. 

3. Dependent questions, hypothetical propositions of comparison 
(qvasi, &c), and propositions expressing a result, are put in the 
present, as in English, when the leading proposition is in the future 
and the subordinate proposition contemporaneous with it (when it 

22 



338 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 379 

does not belong to a still more distant future) : Qvum ad ilium 
venero, videbo, qvid effici possit. Sic in Asiam proficiscar, ut 
Athenas non attingam. 

4. Wherever in the oratio obliqva a leading proposition in the 
future is accompanied by a subordinate in the subjunctive, which 
in the oratio recta would stand in the future indicative (§ 339, 
Obs. 1) the latter is put in the present: — 

Negat Cicero, si naturam seqvamur ducem, unqvam nos aber- 
raturos (= Si naturam seqvemur ducem, nunqvam aberrabimus). 

b. In the other kinds of subordinate propositions (in which the 
connection itself does not show that the subordinate proposition 
belongs to future time), the periphrasis of the future participle with 
the verb sum, which has here precisely the sense of a simple future, 
is made use of in the active : — 

Scire cupio qvando frater tuus venturus sit. In earn rationem 
vitae nos fortuna deduxit, ut sempiternus sermo hominum 
de nobis futurus sit (Cic. ad Q. Fr. I. i. c. 13). Non intelligo, 
cur Rullus qvemqvam tribunum intercessurum putet, qvum 
intercessio stultitiam intercessoris significatura sit, non rem' 
impeditura (Id. de Leg. Agr. II. 12). In the passive, another turn 
must be given to the expression : e.g. Qvaero, qvando portam aper- 
tum iri putes. Ita cecidi, ut nunqvam erigi possim {that I shall 
never rise) . 

§ 379. The future perfect of the subjunctive is in the active like 
the perfect, and is expressed in the passive (in subordinate proposi- 
tions) by the perfect subjunctive (so that only the preterite sense 
appears in the verb, while its futurity is ascertained from the lead- 
ing proposition) : — 

Adnitar, ne frustra vos hanc spem de me conceperitis (Liv. 
XLIV. 22), that you shall not have conceived this hope in vain. Ros- 
cius facile egestatem suam se laturum putat, si hac indigna 
suspicione liberatus sit (Cic. Rose. Am. 44 ; independently expressed : 
facile feram, si — liberatus ero). Caesar magnopere se confidere 
dicit, si colloqvendi cum Pompejo potestas facta sit, fore, ut 
aeqvis condicionibus ab armis discedatur (Cses. B. C. I. 26; si 
potestas facta erit discedetur) . 

If past time be spoken of (after a leading proposition in the pre- 
terite), the pluperfect is used in the same way, to denote an action 
which was to be completed before another : — 



§ 381 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 339 

Promisi me, qvum librum perlegissem, sententiam meam dic- 
turum esse {when I had read = when I should have read) . Divico 
cum Caesare agit, Helvetios in earn partem ituros atqve ibi 
futuros, ubi eos Caesar constituisset atqve esse voluisset (Caes. 
B. G. I. 13). Dicebam, qvoad metueres, omnia te permissurum, 
simulac timere desisses, similem te futurum tui (Cic. Phil. II. 35) . 
(In English the imperfect alone is often employed ; where Ccesar settled 
them, should settle them, &c, the completion of the one action before the 
other not being noted so accurately.) 

§ 380. The future perfect subjunctive in the active voice is em- 
ployed in hypothetical and modest statements of that which is possi- 
ble ; not, however, in the proper signification of that mood and tense, 
but merely as a hypothetical future or present (to which the present 
corresponds in the passive and in deponent verbs). See § 350, and, 
with respect to the use of the second person, § 370. It stands like- 
wise in prohibitions as a simple future or present ; ne dixeris, do 
not say. See Chap. V. 

Obs. In conditional propositions in the second person, this future 
signifies (more distinctly, however, than the present), that a case is 
named which is now for the first time to be conceived of. This future is 
found in a few phrases only instead of the present subjunctive after ut 
or ne (that not) ; e.g. ut sic dixerim, and that never in the best 
writers (Qvinct. I. 6, 1). 

§ 381. The periphrasis of the future participle and fuerim (fu- 
turum in praeterito) is used in a conditional proposition instead of 
the pluperfect subjunctive, if the proposition is a subordinate one, 
which on some other account would have had the subjunctive ; e.g. 
after ut, after qvum (causal), or as a dependent question. (Its 
hypothetical character is then shown by the periphrasis, on the point 
of — . Compare what is said under the indicative in § 342, and 
§ 348, a.) 

Qvum haec reprehendis, ostendis, qvalis tu, si ita forte accidis- 
set, fueris illo tempore consul futurus (Cic. in Pis. 7). (As an 
independent question : Qvalis tu, si ita forte accidisset, consul illo 
tempore misses ?) Virgines eo cursu se ex sacrario proripuerunt, 
ut, si effugium patuisset, impleturae urbem tumultu fuerint (Liv. 
XXIV. 26). If the leading proposition be in the preterite, the pluper- 
fect is employed in a dependent question : Apparuit, qvantam exci- 
tatura molem vera fuisset clades, qvum vanus rumor tantas pro- 
cellas excivisset (Liv. XXVIH. 24). 



340 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 382 

In the passive, where this form is not found, other modes of expres- 
sion are made use of; for it rarely happens that the subjunctive of 
the simple pluperfect is used, both on account of the hypothetical 
nature of the sentence and also for some other reason. The im- 
perfect subjunctive, on the other hand, can, at one and the same 
time, be used hypothetically, and form an indirect question, or follow 
ut, etc. : — 

Hi homines ita vixerunt, ut, qvidqvid dicerent, nemo esset, qvi 
non aeqvum putaret (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 41). 

Obs. In those cases where the perfect indicative is used in an inde- 
pendent sentence, according to § 348, b and e, and Obs. 1 and 2, the 
perfect is retained in the subjunctive : Tanta negligentia castra 
custodiebantur, ut capi potuerint, si hostes aggredi ausi essent 
(— capi, castra potuerunt) . 

§ 382. The time of a subjunctive subordinate proposition is deter- 
mined by referring to the time of the leading proposition. 1 The 
past time is therefore expressed in the subordinate proposition by 
the perfect, when the leading proposition belongs to the present or 
the future ; but if the latter itself belongs to past time, the imper- 
fect (praesens in praeterito) or pluperfect (praeteritum in prae- 
terito) is employed in the subordinate proposition : — 

Video (videbo), qvid feceris. Qvis nescit, qvanto in honore 
apud Graecos musica fuerit? (not esset, although in the direct 
assertion or question it would be : Magno in honore musica apud 
Graecos erat; or, Qvanto in honore musica apud Gr. erat?) 
Vidi (videbam, videram) qvid faceres. Videbam (vidi, videram), 
qvantum jam effecisset. Nemo est, qvi hoc nesciat; nemo erat 
(futurus erat), qvi nesciret; nemo futurus est, qvi nesciat. Eo 
fit, ut milites animos demittant. Eo factum est, ut milites animos 
demitterent. 

If the nearest leading proposition be an accusative with an infini- 
tive, notice must be taken whether it is dependent on a verb in the 
preterite (so that the present infinitive is the praesens in praete- 
rito, and the future infinitive the futurum in praeterito) : — 

Indignum te esse judico, qvi haec patiaris. Indignum te esse 
judicavi, qvi haec paterere. Negavi me unqvam commissurum 
esse, ut jure reprehenderer. 



1 This rule, with the inferences drawn from it, is commonly termed the rule for the 
sequence of the tenses (consecutio temporum). 



§ 382 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 341 

Obs. 1. We should here notice that the historical present, so far as 
the propositions depending on it (or depending on a present infinitive 
which belongs to it) are concerned, is treated sometimes as an actual 
present, sometimes as a perfect (which it virtually is) : Turn demum 
Liscus proponit, esse nonnullos qvorum auctoritas apud plebem 
plurimum valeat ; qvi privati plus possint, qvam ipsi magistrates 
(Cses. B. G. I. 17). Caesar, ne graviori bello occurreret, maturius 
qvam consverat, ad exercitum proficiscitur (Id. ib. IV. 6). Some- 
times, with some want of exactness, the two constructions are united : 
Helvetii legatos ad Caesarem mittunt, qvi dicerent, sibi esse in 
animo iter per provinciam facere, propterea qvod aliud iter 
nullum haberent; rogare, ut ejus voluntate id sibi facere liceat 
(Cses. B. G. I. 7). (Concerning the transition to the present after the 
preterite in a long oratio obliqva, see § 403, b.) 

Obs. 2. Where the assertions and opinions of older writers or schools 
are mentioned in the present, the discourse or narrative sometimes pro- 
ceeds in such forms as the preterite would have called for if it had been 
made use of; e.g. Chrysippus disputat, aethera esse eum, qvem 
homines Jovem appellarent (Cic. N. D. I. 15 ; instead of appellent) . 
But this occurs chiefly in propositions which are separated from the 
leading proposition in a continuous oratio obliqva (§ 403, b) . 

Obs. 3. After ut, signifying so that, qvin, qvi non (but that, 
without), in propositions expressing a result, the perfect is sometimes 
used (instead of the imperfect), although the leading proposition belongs 
to past time, if the statement in the subordinate proposition is conceived 
and expressed generally as a distinct historical fact, not merely with 
reference to the main transaction or to a certain particular point of 
time : Aemilius Paullus tantum in aerarium pecuniae invexit, ut 
unius imperatoris praeda finem attulerit tributorum (Cic. Off. II. 
22) , that the booty has put an end to imposts (for all time following, up 
to the present moment). Verres in itineribus eo usqve se prae- 
bebat patientem atqve impigrum, ut eum nemo unqvam in eqvo 
sedentem viderit (Cic. Verr. V. 10), that no one has seen Mm even on 
a single occasion/ videret would signify that no one ever then saw 
him = was accustomed to see him. Thorius erat ita non timidus ad 
mortem, ut in acie sit ob rempublicam interfectus (Cic. Finn. II. 
20), was so little afraid of death that he (as we know) fell. This con- 
struction is often found, when a single historical fact is represented as 
the consequence of some general quality which has been described. 
Some historians occasionally use this perfect, even in cases where the 
imperfect would be more usual (especially Cornelius Nepos). 

Obs. 4. Isolated instances of deviation from the rule result from an 
inaccuracy of expression ; e.g. Video igitur multas esse causas, qvae 



342 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 383 

istum impellerent (Cic. Rose. Am. 33 ; fuisse was at the time in the 
speaker's mind) . Pugna indicio fuit, qvos gesserint animos (Liv. 
VII. 33 ; the author was thinking that he had used est in the preceding 
clause). Qvae fuerit hesterno die Cn. Pompeji gravitas in di- 
cendo, . . . perspicua admiratione declarari videbatur (Cic. pro 
Balb. 1 ; fuerit, as if it was to be followed by memoria tenetis.) 

§ 383. After a leading proposition in a past tense (as well as 
after the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive in hypothetical sen- 
tences) dependent questions and propositions expressing a purpose 
(ut, ne, qyi for ut, is) or object regularly take a past tense also, 
and are expressed in the imperfect, although their import may hold 
good also at the present or at all times (in which case the present is 
often used in English) : — 

Turn subito Lentulus scelere demens, qvanta conscientiae vis 
esset, ostendit (Cic. Cat. III. 5) , how great the power of conscience is. 
Qvemadmodum officia ducerentur ab honestate, satis explicatum 
arbitror libro superiore (Id. Off. II. 1), how duties are derived. 
Haec Epicurus certe non diceret, si, bis bina qvot essent, didi- 
cisset (Id. N. D. II. 18), how much twice two is. Haec non, ut vos 
excitarem, locutus sum, sed ut mea vox officio functa consulari 
videretur (Id. Cat. IY. 9). Vos adepti estis, ne qvem civem 
metueretis (Id. pro Mil. 13), that you have not to fear. Sic mini per- 
spicere videor, ita natos esse nos, ut inter omnes esset societas 
qvaedam (Id. Lael. 5). (On the other hand : Multos annos in causis 
publicis ita sum versatus, ut defenderim multos, laeserim ne- 
minem (Id. Div. in Caec. 1), of the whole conduct, as it now appears. 
To express a result as it exists only at the present time, the present tense 
is necessarily employed: Siciliam Verres ita vexavit ac perdidit, 
ut ea restitui in antiqvum statum nullo modo possit (Cic. Verr. 
Act. I. 4). 

Obs. 1. So also with qvum, the reason is often expressed in the im- 
perfect as one that existed at that time (in that case) , although it may 
! also hold good now : Hoc scribere, praesertim qvum de philosophia 
scriberem, non auderem, nisi idem placeret Panaetio (Cic. Off. II. 
14), especially as I am writing about philosophy, especially in a philo- 
sophical work. 

Obs. 2. Yet a dependent question, a proposition expressing a pur- 
pose or object, sometimes stands in the present after a perfect (not 
after an imperfect), when this perfect represents the present state 
of affairs, and a condition which has commenced, rather than the nature 
and character of the previous action: Etiamne ad subsellia cum 
ferro atqve telis venistis, ut hie eum aut juguletis aut condemne- 



§ 384 THE IMPERATIVE. 343 

tis ? (Cic. Rose. Am. 11), Are you come here into court? Generi 

animantium omni est a nature tributum, ut se, vitam, corpusqve 
tueatur (Id. Off. I. 4). Tueretur would denote the design of Nature, 
when she created living beings. (Exploratum est omnibus, qvo loco 
causa tua sit, Cic. Verr. V. 63. Here esset could not stand, since explo- 
ratum est mini has only a present signification, 1 know. Qvales viros 
creare vos consules deceat, satis est dictum, Liv. XXIV. 8. Here, 
too, the present alone is admissible, because the action referred to is yet 
to come.) 

Obs. 3. When the perfect (according to § 335, 6, Obs. 1) denotes 
only the action that takes place on each several occasion, it is followed 
by the present in a proposition expressing a purpose : Qvum misimus 
qvi afferat agnum, qvem immolemus, num is mini agnus affertur, 
qvi habet exta rebus accommodata ? (Cic. Div. II. 17) . 

Obs. 4. Sometimes, the tense of a dependent proposition is governed 
rather inaccurately, not by the leading proposition, but by some remark 
in another tense which is inserted between the leading and subordinate 
propositions ; e.g. Idem a te nunc peto, qvod superioribus litteris 
(sc. petivi), ut, si qvid in perditis rebus dispiceres, qvod mini 
putares faciendum, me moneres (Cic. ad Att. XI. 16). Curavitqve 
Servius Tullius, qvod semper in republica tenendum est, ne pluri- 
mum valeant plurimi (Id. R. P. U. 22) . 



CHAPTER V. 



THE IMPERATIVE. 



§ 384. The Imperative expresses a request, a command, a pre- 
cept, or an exhortation. The present imperative is employed, when 
the request, the command, &c, is stated with reference to the pres- 
ent time or without reference to a definite time or condition ; the 
future (which has a form for the third person as well as the second), 
when the request or command is stated with express reference to 
the time following or some particular case that may occur : it is 
consequently employed in laws and where the style of laws is imi- 
tated : — 

Vale, O Jupiter, serva, obsecro, haec nobis bona (Ter. Eim. V. 
8, 19) . Patres conscripti, subvenite misero mihi, ite obviam inju- 
riae (Sail. Jug. 14) . Fac venias. Facite, judices, ut recordemini 



344 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 386 

qvae sit temeritas multitudinis (Cic. pro Flacc. 24) = recordamini, 
judices. Cura, ut valeas. Rem vobis proponam ; vos earn suo, 
on nominis pondere penditote (Cic. Yerr. IV. 1), then estimate it. 
Qvum valetudini tuae consulueris, turn consulito navigationi (Id. 
ad Fam. XYI. 4) . Regio imperio duo sunto iiqve consules apellan- 
tor (Id. Legg. III. 3). Servus meus Stichus liber esto (in wills). 
Non satis est, pulchra esse poemata ; dulcia sunto, et, qvocunqve 
volent, animum auditoris agunto (Hor. A. P. 99). Esto (Be 
it so I). 

Obs. The second person of the future indicative is sometimes used for 
the second person of the imperative, in order to express a firm conviction 
that the command or direction will be complied with, especially in familiar 
language : Si qvid acciderit novi, facies, ut sciam (Cic. ad Fam. XIY. 
8) , you will inform me. 

§ 385. A command, exhortation, demand, request, or counsel, is 
often (except in the language of the laws) expressed in the third 
person by the subjunctive. So also in the second person, of a sub- 
ject which is only assumed : — 

Aut bibat aut abeat! (Cic. Tusc. Y. 41). Status, incessus, vul- 
tus, oculi teneant decorum (Id. Off. I. 35). Injurias fortunae, 
qvas ferre neqveas, defugiendo relinqvas (Id. Tusc. Y. 41), one 
must escape by flight. 

Obs. The subjunctive is rarely so used of a definite second person 
(mostly only in the poets) : Si sciens fallo, turn me, Juppiter optime 

maxime, pessimo leto afficias (Liv. XXII. 53) , then may est thou . 

Si certum est facere, facias ; verum ne post conferas culpam in 
me (Ter. Eun. II. 3, 97). 

§ 386. In laws a prohibition is expressed by the future impera- 
tive with ne (neve = et ne, vel ne). With this exception, the 
subjunctive is employed in prose in prohibitions and requests of a 
negative form (ne, nemo, nihil, etc.), in the present tense (or the 
future perfect) when the verb is in the third person ; and when the 
verb is in the second person in the active voice the future perfect is 
used, and in the passive the perfect is preferred (rarely the pres- 
ent) : — 

Nocturna sacrificia ne sunto (Cic. Legg. II. 9). Borea flante, 
ne arato, semen ne jacito (second person, Plin. H. N". XVIII. s. 77). 
Puer telum ne habeat. (Capessite rempublicam, neqve qvem- 
qvam ex aliorum calamitate metus ceperit, Sail. Jug. 85.) Hoc 
facito, hoc ne feceris (Cic. Div. II. 61). Nihil ignoveris, nihil gra- 



§ 388 THE INFINITIVE. 345 

tiae causa feceris, misericordia commotus ne sis (Id. pro Mur. 31). 
Ulum jocum ne sis aspernatus (Id. ad Q. Fr. II. 12). Ne tran- 
sieris Xberum; ne qvid rei tibi sit cum Saguntinis (Liv. XXI. 44). 
^Scribere ne pigrere, be not negligent in writing, Cic. ad Att. XIV. 1). 
The poets use also the present imperative : Ne saevi (Virg. iEn. VI. 
544). 

Obs. 1. The second person of the present subjunctive active is found 
in prohibitions, which are directed only to an assumed subject : Isto 
bono utare, dum adsit ; qvum absit, ne reqviras (Cic. Cat. M. 10) ; 
otherwise but rarely, and only in the oldest poets (Verum ne post con- 
feras culpam in me, Ter. Eun. II. 3, 97) . 

Obs. 2. A prohibition is also often expressed by the imperative noli 
or nolito: e.g. Noli putare, Brute, qvenqvam uberiorem ad di- 
cendum fuisse, qvam C. Gracchum (Cic. Brut. 33). Si insidias 
fieri libertati vestrae intelligetis, nolitote dubitare earn consule 
adjutore defendere (Id. de Leg. Agr. II. 6). (Cave facias.) 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE INFINITIVE AND ITS TENSES. 

§ 387. The Infinitive expresses the idea of a verb in general 
(with the distinctions of tense, dicere, dixisse, &c), but without 
applying that idea to a definite subject, to form a proposition 
with it. 

Obs. In that kind of subordinate propositions, which is called the 
accusative with the infinitive, the infinitive is indeed combined with a 
definite subject, and so far forms a proposition with it, but without the 
distinctions of person, or (so far as the simple infinitive is concerned) of 
number or gender which characterize the subject. 

§ 388. a. The infinitive stands as the subject of a proposition, 
when an act or state, taken in an indefinite and absolute sense, 
has something predicated of it ; and with the verb sum, it is used 
as the predicate of another infinitive : — 

Bene sentire recteqve facere satis est ad bene beateqve viven- 
dum (Cic. ad Fam. VI. 1 ; bene sentire recteqve facere puto satis 
esse ad bene vivendum). Apud Persas summa laus est fortiter 
venari (Corn. Ale. 11). Semper haec ratio accusandi fuit hones- 
tissima, pro sociis inimicitias suscipere (Cic. Div. in Case. 19). 



346 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 388 

Invidere non cadit in sapientem (Cic. Tusc. III. 10) . Nihil aliud 
est (nihil aliud puto esse) bene et beate vivere nisi recte et 
honeste vivere (Cic. Par. I. 3). (Vivere ipsum turpe est nobis, 
Cic. ad Att. XIII. 28. Qvibusdam totum hoc displicet philoso- 
phari, Id. Finn. I. 1). It is less frequently used as the simple ob- 
je t of a verb : Beate vivere alii in alio, Epicurus in voluptate ponit 
(Cic. Finn. II. 27) . 

Obs. It is, however, unusual to make the infinitive the subject of a 
proposition (treating it, in all respects, like a substantive), unless the 
verb of the proposition is sum, or some one of those which (like cadit, 
displicet) approximate to the impersonal verbs. (Hos omnes eadem 
cupere, eadem odisse, eadem metuere, in unum coegit, Sail. Jug. 31 ; 
better, eaedem cupiditates, eadem odia, iidem metus in unum 
coegerunt.) 

b. An adjective or substantive, which is connected as a predicate 
noun, or by way of apposition with an infinitive used thus indefi- 
nitely (without a subject), is always put in the accusative (§ 222, 
Obs. 1), and so also the participle, when the compound form of the 
infinitive is used: — 

Consulem fieri magnificum est. Magna laus est, tantas res 
solum gessisse. Ad virtutem non est satis vivere obedientem 
legibus populorum. Praestat honeste vivere qvam honeste natum 
esse. Divitias contemnere, comparantem cum utilitate communi, 
magni animi est (Cic), when one compares. 

Obs. 1. The infinitive is not used appositively to define an undefined 
substantive ; thus, we do not find labor legere, but labor legendi. See 
§§ 286 and 417. (An infinitive, however, maybe added in apposition to 
a substantive which is defined by an adjective : Demus nobis acerbam 
necessitudinem, pariter te errantem et ilium sceleratissimum per- 

seqvi (Sail. Jug. 102) , a hard necessity, namely ; but this, too, is 

rare ; and by far the most common construction is acerbam necessitu- 
dinem perseqvendi.) 

Obs. 2. To such an infinitive, a subordinate proposition may be sub- 
joined in the third person singular of the active voice, without a definite 
subject, — the same subject being understood, to which the infinitive 
might be referred (in English, one) : Neqve mini praestabilius qvid- 
qvam videtur qvam posse dicendo hominum voluntates impel- 
lere, qvo velit, unde autem velit, deducere (Cic. de Or. I. 8) , whither 
one will. Nulla vox inimicior amicitiae reperiri potuit qvam 
ejus, qvi dixit, ita amare oportere, ut si aliqvando esset osurus 
(Id. La3l. 16.) 



§ 389 THE INFINITIVE. 347 

§ 389. Verbs which, from the nature of their signification, call 
for a second act by the same person (a second verb with the same 
subject), are followed by the infinitive of that second verb. Such 
verbs are those which designate a wish, power, duty, custom, incli- 
nation, purpose, beginning, continuation, cessation, neglect, &c. ; 
as: — 

Volo, nolo, malo, cupio, studeo, conor, nitor, contendo (tento, 
poet, amo, qvaero), possum, qveo, neqveo (poet, valeo), audeo 
(poet, sustineo), vereor (poet, metuo, timeo), gravor, non dubito, 
scio, nescio, disco, debeo, soleo, adsvesco, consvevi, statuo, con- 
stituo, . decerno, cogito, paro, meditor, instituo, coepi, incipio, 
aggredior, pergo, persevero, desino, intermitto, maturo (to hasten), 
ce^so, occupo (to hasten to anticipate another in doing a thing), recor- 
dor, memini, obliviscor, negligo, omitto, supersedeo, non euro (I 
do not like, poet, parco, fugio) ; further the (wholly or partially) imper- 
sonal verbs libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est (it seemed 
good to me, I resolved), fugit (me, / neglect), pudet, poenitet, piget, 
taedet, and the expressions necesse est, opus est. The infinitive is 
likewise put after some phrases of similar import ; e.g. habeo in animo, 
in animo est, consilium est (cepi), certum est, animum induco, 
prevail upon one^s self (also in animum induco). Vincere scis, Han- 
nibal, victoria uti nescis (Liv. XXII. 51). Antiuni me recipere 
cogito. Oblitus sum tibi hoc dicere. Visum est mini de se- 
nectute aliqvid ad te scribere (Cic. Cat. M. 1). Pudet (me) haec 
fateri. Certum est (mihi) deliberatumqve omnia audacter libere- 
qve dicere (Cic. Rose. Am. 11). Tu animum poteris inducere 
contra haec dicere? (Id. Div. I. 13). Nemo alteri concedere in 
animum inducebat (Liv. I. 17). 

Obs. 1. Those verbs which denote a determined purpose are found 
also with ut : Athenienses statuerunt, ut urbe relicta naves con- 
scenderent (Cic. Off. III. 11). In like manner, we find both animum 
induco facere, and ut faciam. So also with opto : Phaeton optavit, 
ut in currum patris tolleretur (Cic. Off. III. 25), and Optat arare 
caballus (Hor . Ep . 1. 14, 43) . (Merui, ut honorarer, like impetro, and 
honorari.) Concerning the infinitive or the genitive of the gerund, in 
some phrases consisting of a substantive and sum, see § 417, Obs. 2. 

Obs. 2. The poets use the infinitive after some verbs which, when 
used figuratively, denote inclination and effort, but which, in prose, have 
no such meaning; e.g. ardeo, trepido (ardet abire fuga, Virg. JEn. 
IV. 281). They also use the infinitive after some verbs which are else- 
where followed by ut or ne to express the purpose (compare § 419). 
Hoc acrius omnes (apes) incumbent generis lapsi sarcire ruinas 



348 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 390 

(Virg. G. IV. 248). Otherwise, ad ruinas sarciendas, ut ruinas 
sarciant. Isolated expressions of this kind are found, here and there, 
in prose ; e.g. Conjuravere nobilissimi cives patriam incendere 
(Sail. Cat. 52). 

Obs. 3. The infinitive may follow the participle paratus, ready : para- 
tus frumentum dare (ad frumentum dandum) ; so likewise (chiefly 
in the poets, and in the style of a later period), contentus, svetus 
assvetus, insuetus. 

Obs. 4. With volo, nolo, malo, cupio, opto, and studeo, an accu- 
sative (of the pronoun) with the infinitive is sometimes employed instead 
of the simple infinitive (as, in stating what one wishes that another 
should do, see § 396), the whole circumstance, which is the object of 
the will and desire, being conceived rather as a distinct thing in 
itself (most frequently with esse, or a passive infinitive) ; e.g. Sapien- 
tem civem me et esse et numerari volo (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9). 
Cupio me esse clementem ; cupio in tantis reipublicae periculis 
me non dissolutum videri (Id. Cat. 1.2); A similar construction is 
found with postulo : Ego qvoqve a meis me amari postulo (Ter. 
Ad. V. 4, 25) ; and with constituo, to engage, promise (§ 395, Obs. 3). 
(Patior appellari sapiens, for patior me appellari sapientem, accord- 
ing to the rule given in § 396, is poetical.) 

Obs. 5. Licet, too (though the instances are rare) is found con- 
structed with the accusative and infinitive (according to § 398, a) : 
Non licet me isto tanto bono uti (Cic. Yerr. Y. 59). (In familiar 
language, and that style in which it is imitated, licet and licebit are 
also used with the subjunctive, ut being omitted. § 361, Obs. 1.) 

§ 390. The infinitive is subjoined to the verbs doceo, assuefacio, 
jubeo, veto, sino, arguo, insimulo, to denote what one teaches, 
orders, forbids, or allows a person to do, or accuses him of doing ; 
it may likewise be subjoined to the verbs COgO (subigo), moneo, 1 
hortor (dehortor), impedio, and prohibeo, which otherwise have 
an objective proposition in the subjunctive with ut, &c. (§§ 372 and 
375). The infinitive is also added to the passive of these verbs 
(and to deterreor, to be deterred). 

Docebo Rullum posthac tacere (Cic. Leg. Agr. III. 2). Num 
sum etiamnum vel Graece loqvi vel Latine docendus ? (Id. Finn. 
II. 5). Herus me jussit Pamphilum observare. Consules ju- 
bentur (receive orders ; jussi sunt, received orders) exercitum scribere. 
Caesar legatos ab opere discedere vetuerat. Nolani muros por- 



* [Non ilia qvisqvam me nocte per altum 
Ire, neqve ab terra moneat convellere funem (Virg. Georg. I. 456).] 



§ 390 THE INFINITIVE. 349 

tasqve adire vetiti sunt (Liv. XXIII. 16). Improbitas nunqvam 
respirare eum sinit (Cic. Finn. I. 16) . Accusare non sum situs (Id. 
pro Sest. 4:4:). Insimulant hominem fraudandi causa discessisse 
(Id. Yerr. II. 24). Roscius arguitur patrem occidisse. Num te 
emere venditor coegit? Qvum vita sine amicis insidiarum et 
metus plena sit, ratio ipsa monet amicitias comparare (Cic. Finn. 
I. 20). Prohibiti estis pedem in provincia ponere (Cic. pro 
Lig. 8). 

Ojbs. 1. The verbs jubeo, veto, sino, have, in this construction, the 
name of the one who receives the command, &c, as their object, al- 
though, in other circumstances (without the infinitive) , they could not 
take this object. The object of the verb is subject as regards the infini- 
tive (jubeo te salvum, salvam, vos salvos, salvas esse; hence, in the 
passive, jubeor salvus esse). (Sino is also used with the subjunctive, 
with or without ut. § 372, b, Obs. 2.) 

Obs. 2. Jubeo with ut, or with the subjunctive without ut, is rare, 
when it means to order : Magoni nuntiatum ab Carthagine est, sena- 
tum jubere, ut classem in Italiam trajiceret (Liv. XXVUI. 36). 
So also veto ne, or qvominus is rarely met with. 1 (Jubeo alicui, ut 
faciat, or alicui, faciat, is found only in later writers.) 

Obs. 3. If, with jubeo and veto, the person to whom a thing is com- 
manded or forbidden is not specified, a simple infinitive may follow : 
Hesiodus eadem mensura reddere jubet, qva acceperis, aut etiam 
cumulatiore, si possis (Cic. Brut. 4) . Desperatis etiam Hippocra- 
tes vetat adhibere medicinam (Id. ad Att. XYI. 15). But it is more 
usual, when the infinitive has an object, to express the purport of the 
command or prohibition in the passive by an accusative with the infini- 
tive. See § 396. 

Obs. 4. The poets and later writers sometimes use other verbs, which 
express an influence over others, and govern the accusative with the 
infinitive, instead of taking the subjunctive with ut: Quid dolens (from 
what provocation) regina deum insignem pietate virum tot adire la- 
bores impulit ? (Virg. iEn. I. 9) . Sollicitor nullos esse putare deos 

(Ov. Am. III. 9, 36), I am tempted . Fuere, qvos pavor nando 

etiam capessere fugam impulerit (Liv. XXII. 6) . Amici Nerohem 
orabant cavere insidias (Tac. Ann. XIII. 13). 

Obs. 5. The infinitive is occasionally used instead of ut (chiefly in the 
poets or later writers), with some verbs which govern the dative, and 
denote an influence over others to induce them to an action ; e.g. with 
svadeo, concedo, permitto, impero : Imperavi egomet mini omnia 
assentari (Ter. Eun. II. 2, 21). Servis qvoqve pueros hujus 



1 [Vetabo sub isdem sit trabibus (Hor. Od. III. 2, 26).] 



350 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 392 

aetatis verberare concedimus (Curt. VJJLL. 26) . Hence, in the passive : 
De republica, nisi per concilium, loqvi non conceditur (Cses. B. G. 
VI. 20). 

Obs. 6. The poets use the infinitive with do and reddo, to give to a 

person to, i.q. give a person the power to : Grajis dedit ore ro- 

tundo Musa loqvi (Hor. A. P. 323). Hence, in the passive (in the 
later prose-writers, also) : Qvantum mini cernere datur, so far as it 
is given me to see, so far as I can see (Plin. Ep. I. 10). (Adimam can- 
tare severis, Hor. Ep. I. 19, 9.) (Celso gaudere etbene rem gerere 
refer, wish Celsus joy and prosperity, Id. Ep. I. 8, 1, after a Greek 
usage) . 

§ 391. In the poets (and, in some cases, in the later prose-writers), 
the simple infinitive is found, instead of a case of the gerund after adjec- 
tives, and instead of the supine, both of the active and passive voice. 
See § 419, § 411, Obs. 2 ; and § 412, Obs. 3. 

Obs. The infinitive stands after a preposition in the phrase interest 
inter; e.g. Aristo et Pyrrho inter optime valere et gravissime 
aegrotare nihil prorsus dicebant interesse (Cic. Finn. II. 13). 
(Nihil praeter plorare, Hor. Sat. II. 5, 69, nothing but .) 

§ 392. The present infinitive is often used in a peculiar way 
in narration instead of the imperfect indicative, when the writer 
passes from the relation of events to the description of a state of 
things that has suddenly taken place and begun, and of recurring 
actions and emotions that follow in rapid succession (the historical 
infinitive). The proposition remains otherwise unaltered, precisely 
as if the indicative had been employed. Usually several such in- 
finitives are found in succession. 

Circumspectare turn patriciorum vultus plebeji (then the plebeians 
began to search) et inde libertatis captare auram, unde servitutem 
timuerant. Primores patrum odisse (hated) decemviros, odisse ple- 
bem ; nee probare, qvae fierent, et credere haud indignis accidere 
(Liv. III. 37). (Odisse has a present signification.) Hoc ubi Ver- 
res audivit, usqve eo commotus est, ut sine ulla dubitatione in- 
sanire omnibus videretur. Qvia non potuerat eripere argentum, 
ipse a Diodoro erepta sibi vasa optime facta dicebat ; minitari 
absenti Diodoro, vociferari palam, lacrimas interdum vix tenere 
(Cic. Verr. IV. 18). This construction is even found after qvum, 
qvum interim, qvum tamen, if the time at which a particular state 
of things took place or appeared has been previously specified : Fusis 
Auruncis, victor tot intra paucos dies bellis Romanus promissa 
consulis fidemqve senatus expectabat, qvum Appius, et insita 



§ 393 THE INFINITIVE. 351 

superbia animo, et ut collegae vanam faceret fidem qvam asper- 
rime poterat, jus de creditis pecuniis dicere (Liv. II. 27), when Ap- 

pius suddenly began . Jamqve dies ccnsumptus erat, qvum 

tamen barbari nihil remittere, atqve, uti reges piaeceperant, acrius 
instare (Sail. Jug. 98) . Patres ut . . . credere, ita malle (Liv. III. 
65). 

Obs. The infinitive, thus used, presents to the hearer or reader a 
picture of a transient state of things, or of a rapid succession of acts, 
without separating the acts from each other, or referring them to any- 
particular time. 

§ 393. If to an infinitive, which refers to a preceding word as its 
subject, a predicate substantive or adjective, or a word in apposition, 
is added, then this predicate or appositive word agrees in case with 
the subject. 

a. If therefore an infinitive, depending on one of the verbs named 
in § 389 or on the passive of those named in § 390, is connected 
with a subject which is in the nominative case, then the added sub- 
stantive or adjective is put in the nominative : — ? . 

Cupio esse Clemens. Bibulus studet fieri consul. Habeo in 
ammo solus proficisci. (Sustinuit conjux exsulis esse viri, Ov. 
Trist. IV. 10, 74, she endured to be.) Jubemur securi (securae) 
esse. 

b. If the infinitive belongs to an accusative (after the verbs men- 
tioned in § 390, and after an impersonal verb with the accusative), 
the added word is put in the accusative : — 

Coegerunt eum nudum saltare. Pudet me victum discedere. 

c. If the infinitive belongs to a dative, the added word is also put 
in the dative : — 

Hannibal nihil jam majus precatur deos, qvam ut incolumi 
cedere atqve abire ex hostium terra liceat (Liv. XXVI. 41). In 
republica mihi negligent! esse non licet (Cic. ad Att. I. 17). Qvo 
tibi, Tilli, sumere depositum clavum fieriqve tribuno ? (Hor. Sat. 
I. 6, 25. Compare § 239.) Nee fortibus illic profuit armentis nee 
eqvis velocibus esse (Ov. Met. VUL 553). (Mediocribus esse 
poetis non homines, non di concessere, Hor. A. P. 372. See § 390, 
Obs. 5.) 

Obs. 1. An infinitive with the accusative is, however, occasionally 
found after licet with the dative (as if the infinitive had no definite sub- 
ject, § 388, 6) ; e.g. Civi Romano licet esse Gaditanum (Cic. pro 



352 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 395 

Balb. 12). The accusative must be employed when the dative is not 
actually expressed, although it may be understood : Medios esse (to be 
neutral) jam non licebit (Cic. ad Att. X. 8). 

Obs. 2. If a verb, which otherwise governs the dative, is used with- 
out the dative, for the sake of making the expression indefinite (e.g. 
licet, one can) , then the word connected with the infinitive must be in 
the accusative: Haec praescripta servantem (if one observes), licet 
magnifice, graviter, animoseqve vivere (Cic. Off. I. 26) . So also, 
when the infinitive is constructed with est alicujus. See § 388, b, the 
last example. 

§ 394. A subject stands in the accusative having an infinitive as 
its predicate, in order to present the proposition so expressed as an 
idea, which is the object of an assertion or judgment ; e.g. Homi- 
nem ire, that the man goes [or, that the man should go~] ; Caesarem 
vicisse, that Ccesar has conquered [or, that Gcesar should have con- 
queredj. This construction is called the accusative with the infini- 
tive. If, in the completed proposition of which the accusative with 
the infinitive forms a part, the subject and object might be con- 
founded (both being in the accusative), this must be avoided; e.g. 
by making the proposition passive ; as, Ajo hostes a te vinci posse ; 
rather than ajo te hostes vincere posse ; but the sense and connec- 
tion (together with the arrangement of the words) usually obviate 
any ambiguity. 

An accusative with the infinitive may be dependent on (governed by) 
another proposition of the same form : Milonis inimici dicunt, caedem, 
in qva P. Clodius occisus est, senatum judicasse, contra rempub- 
licam esse factam (Cic. pro Mil. 5). 

§ 395. An accusative with the infinitive is put after verbs and 
phrases, which denote a knowledge and opinion that a thing is or 
takes place, or a declaration that a thing is or takes place (verba 
sentiendi and declarandi), and expresses what is thought or 
said : — 

Thus after video, audio, sentio, animadverto, scio, nescio, &c, in- 
telligo, perspicio, comperio, suspicor, &c, disco, doceo (to inform 

one that ), persvadeo (convince one that ), memini, &c, credo, 

arbitror, &c, judico, censeo, duco; spero, despero, colligo, con- 
cludo (infer), dico, affirmo, nego, fateor, narro, trado, scribo, nuntio, 
ostendo, demonstro, significo, polliceor, promitto, minor, simulo, 
dissimulo, &c, apparet, eliicet, constat, convenit (it is agreed that 
), perspicuum, certum, credibile est, &c, communis opinio 



§ 395 THE INFINITIVE. 353 

est, fama est, spes est, auctor sum (to assure), testis sum, certiorem 

aliqvem facio (to inform a person that ), &c. ; e.g. : — 

Sentit animus se sua vi, non aliena moveri. Platonem Cicero 
scribit Tarentum ad Archytam venisse. Ex multis rebus intelligi 
potest (concluditur), mundum providentia divina administrari. 
Dejotarus tuum hostem esse duxit suum (Cic. pro Dej. 5). Spero 
me propediem istuc venturum esse. Caesar pollicetur, se iis 
auxilio futurum. Fama est, Gallos adventare. Qvem putas tibi 
fidem habiturum ? (Qvaesivi ex te, qvem putares tibi fidem habi- 
turum) . Qvando haec acta esse dicis ? 

Obs. 1. Such a proposition may also connect itself with a substantive 
which means opinion, judgment, &c, either in apposition, when a pro- 
noun agreeing with the substantive points to the next proposition, or 
when the substantive, by its connection with the rest of the proposition 
to which it belongs, acquires the force of a verbum sentiendi, &c. ; 
e.g. Hunc sermonem mandavi litteris, ut ilia opinio, qvae semper 
fuisset, toller etur, Crassum non doctissimum, Antonium plane 
indoctum fuisse (Cic. de Or. II. 2). Atqve etiam subjiciunt se 
homines imperio alterius de causis pluribus ; ducuntur enim aut 
benevolentia aut benenciorum magnitudine aut spe, sibi id utile 
futurum (Id. Off. II. 6). So, likewise, an accusative with the infinitive 
may be added as an apposition to a pronoun which, from the connection, 
comes to signify opinion, judgment, &c. ; e.g. Posidonius graviter et 
copiose de hoc ipso, nihil esse bonum, nisi qvod honestum esset, 
disputavit (Cic. Tusc. II. 25). 

Obs. 2. Some few verbs, which are not properly verba sentiendi 
or declarandi, sometimes acquire silch a meaning, in certain combina- 
tions ; e.g. mitto, to apprise any one by a messenger (Fabius ad colle- 
gam misit, exercitu opus esse, qvi Campanis opponeretur, Liv. 
XXIV. 19), defendo, to allege; purgo, to say by way of excuse, that; 
interpreter, to state, by way of explanation, that. (Stoicis placet, 
omnia peccata paria esse, the Stoics assume .) Concerning con- 
cede &c, with the accusative and infinitive, or ut, see § 372, Obs. 5. 
Concerning dubito, non dubito, § 375, c, Obs. 2. 

Obs. 3. The beginner must notice, that verbs which signify to hope, to 
promise, and to threaten, and are commonly used, in English, with a sim- 
ple present infinitive, when the leading and the dependent verb have the 
same subject (e.g. he promised to come, I hope to see him, I threatened to 
go away) , must be followed, in Latin, by the accusative with the infinitive : 
promittebat, se venturum ; spero, me eum visurum ; minabar, me 
abiturum. The verbs spero and polliceor are found sometimes (but 
rarely) with the infinitive alone, instead of the accusative with the infini- 
tive: e.g. Magnitudine poenae reliqvos deterrere sperans (Cses. 

23 



354 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 395 

B. C. III. 8) ; for se deterriturum. 1 (Spero nostram amicitiam 
non egere testibus, said of a thing present.) (Nego facere, poetical, 
to refuse to do.) 

Obs. 4. Concerning duco, existimo, judico, puto, with two accusa- 
tives without an infinitive, see § 227, c. 

Obs. 5. Audio te contumeliose de me loqvi, I hear (learn) that 
you speak contemptuously of me ; audivi te ipsum dicere, I heard you 
say, was witness that you said (also, audivi, and audivi ex te, quum 
diceres, I heard the assertion from you) ; audivi te dicentem, 1 heard 
you speak (make a speech) . (Video pueros ludere ; vidi pueros magno 
studio ludentes.) 

Obs. 6. The contents of the infinitive proposition are sometimes 
briefly pointed to beforehand by a neuter pronoun ; e.g. Illud negare 
potes, te de re judicata judicasse ? (Cic. Verr. II. 33) ; or by ita or 
sic ; e.g. Sic enini a majoribus nostris accepimus, praetorem 
qvaestori suo parentis loco esse oportere (Cic. Div. in Csec. 19). 
(Zeno ita definit, perturbationem esse aversum a ratione animi 

motum, gives the definition that passion ; Zeno ita definit, ut 

perturbatio sit aversa a ratione animi commotio, defines passion in 

such a way, that it is, according to this definition , Cic. Tusc. IV. 

21, compared with Off. I. 27.) 

Obs. 7. The person or thing concerning which something is asserted 
in the accusative with the infinitive is not often introduced into the lead- 
ing proposition with the preposition de, but is found only in the infini- 
tive proposition. Therefore, we should not say, De Medea narrant, 

earn sic fugisse , but Medeam narrant sic fugisse ; not 

de Crasso scribit Cicero, nihil eo laetius fuisse, but Crasso Cicero 
scribit nihil laetius fuisse; not Cornelius de qvo narrasti, eum 

Athenas profectum esse (of whom you related, that he was , but 

qvem narrasti Athenas profectum esse. Yet the second form is also 
found, (1) where such a compression of the sentence would not be easy ; 
e.g. De hoc Verri dicitur, habere eum perbona toreumata (Cic. 
Verr. IV. 18, because the passive dicor is only used personally, in the 
signification it is said (generally) of me, and does not admit of a dative) ; 
or, (2) where the attention is first drawn generally to the thing to be men- 
tioned ; e.g. De Antonio, jam ante tibi scripsi, non esse eum a me 

conventum (Cic. ad Att. XV. 1), as to what relates to A. . We 

must also notice such expressions as the following in questions which are 
interrupted, and then continued by a new question : Qvid censes 
(censetis, putamus) hunc ipsum S. Roscium? qvo studio et 



1 [Ad eum legati veniunt, qvi polliceantur obsides dare, atqve imperio 
populi Romani obtemperare (Caes. B. G. IV. 21). Ad eum legati venerunt, qvi 
se ea qvae imperasset facturos pollicerentur (Id. IV. 22).] 



§ 396 THE INFINITIVE. 355 

qva intelligentia esse in rusticis rebus (Cic. Rose. Am. 17 ; also, 
qvid censes S. Roscium, nonne summo studio esse et summa intel- 
ligentia ?) , where the accusative already points to the infinitive 

construction. 

Obs. 8. It is less customary in Latin than in English to insert a 
verbuni sentiendi or declarandi with ut, as, as a subordinate propo- 
sition j and it is preferable to make such a verb the leading proposition 
with an accusative with the infinitive depending upon it. (Verrem 

narrant , rather than Verres, ut narrant; Socratem Plato 

scribit , rather than Socrates, ut Plato scribit.) Yet we fre- 
quently find fTt opinor, or simply opinor, credo, ut audio, employed 
parenthetically. 

§ 396. An accusative with the infinitive is put after those verbs 
which denote a wish that something should happen, or the enduring 
or allowing it (verba voluntatis) ; namely, volo, nolo, malo, cupio, 
opto, studeo, postulo, placet, sino, patior, with jubeo, impero, 
prohibeo, veto (to command, forbid, that something should be done) ; 
e.g. : — 

Majores corpora juvenum firmari labore voluerunt (Cic. Tusc. 
II. 15). Tibi favemus, te tua virtute frui cupimus (Id. Brut. 97). 
Senatui placet, Crassum Syriam obtinere (Id. Phil. XI. 12). Nul- 
los honores mini decerni sino (Id. ad Att. V. 21) . Verres homi- 
nem corripi jussit. Caesar castra vallo muniri vetuit. Delectum 
haberi prohibebo (Liv. IV. 2). Non nunc in vincula duci impera- 
bis? (Cic. Cat. I. 11). 

Obs. 1. These verbs also take after them a proposition with ut 
(prohibeo with ne or qvominus, veto with ne), but jubeo (§ 390, 
Obs. 2), patior, and veto, very rarely. (Sometimes writers pass from 
the accusative with the infinitive to the other construction : Placuit 
creari decemviros sine provocatione, et ne qvis eo anno alius 
magistrates esset, Liv. III. 32.) Concerning cupio me clementem 
esse for cupio esse Clemens, see § 389, Obs. 4. Later writers and 
the poets put also an accusative with the infinitive (passive) after per- 
mitto (with the dative), and after verbs of entreating, commanding, &c, 
which, in the best writers, always have ut; e.g. praecipio, mando, 
interdico, oro, precor : Otho corpora cremari permisit (Tac. H. I. 
47). Caligula praecepit, triremes itinere terrestri Romam devehi 
(Svet. Cal. 47). 

Obs. 2. After volo (nolo, malo, cupio), an accusative with the infini- 
tive of the perf. pass, is often used in the signification will have a thing 
done = will that something should be done ; e.g. Sociis maxime lex 
consultum esse vult (Cic. Div. in Caec. 6). (Often simply consul- 



856 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 397 

turn volo, without esse: Legati Sullam orant, ut Sex. Roscii 
famam et filii innocentis fortunas conservatas velit, Cic. pro Rose. 
Am. 9.) 

Obs. 3. Jubeo, sino, veto, prohibeo, and impero, take only a 
passive infinitive, or esse with a subject accusative ; since, if it is active, 
we find jubeo (veto) aliqvem facere, with a simple infinitive (§ 390), 
and impero alicui ut faciat (e.g. Nonne lictoribus tuis imperabis, 
ut hunc in vincula ducant?). From jubeo, veto, prohibeo, im- 
pero nunc occidi, a new phrase may be formed in the passive, when 
the person who commands or forbids is not specified (nom. with the infini- 
tive. See § 400) : Hie occidi jubetur, vetatur, prohibetur, impera- 
tur ; e.g. Jussus es renuntiari consul (Cic. Phil. II. 32), it was ordered 
that you should be proclaimed consul. In lautumias Syracusanas, si 
qvi publice custodiendi sunt, etiam ex ceteris oppidis Siciliae 
deduci imperantur (Id. Verr. V. 27). Ad prohibenda circumdari 
opera Aeqvi se parabant (Liv. III. 28) . (Such expressions are dis- 
tinct from jubeor, prohibeor, facere ; § 390.) 

Obs. 4. The verb censeo, to think, vote for, advise, has various con- 
structions, which may be here noticed: Censeo Carthaginem esse 

delendam (7 think that Carthage must i.e. vote for it). Censeo 

bona reddi (I vote, will, that the property should be restored, as with 
jubeo). Antenor censet belli praecidere causam (Hor. Ep. I. 2, 
9), votes for cutting off; in the poetical and later style for praeciden- 
dam esse or praecidi. Censeo, ut perrumpas, I advise you to break 
through (censeo, perrumpas). 

§ 397. An accusative with the infinitive is put with those verbs 
which denote satisfaction, dissatisfaction, or surprise at the exist- 
ence of a thing (verba affectuum), such as gaudeo, laetor, glorior, 
doleo, angor, sollicitor, indignor, qveror, miror, admiror, fero 
{to be resigned to a thing), aegre, moleste fero. Yet qvod (with 
the indicative or subjunctive, according to § 357) may also be em- 
ployed with these verbs, in order to denote more the reason of the 
feeling : — 

Gaudeo id te mihi svadere, qvod ego mea sponte feceram (Cic. 
ad Att. XV. 27). Nihil me magis sollicitabat, qvam non me, si 
qvae ridenda essent, ridere tecum (Id. ad Fam. II. 12). Miror, te 
ad me nihil scribere (Id. ad Att. VIII. 12). Varus promissa non 
servari qverebatur. (Laetor, qvod Petilius incolumis vivit in 
urbe, Hor. Sat. I. 4, 98. Scipio qverebatur, qvod omnibus in 
rebus homines diligentiores essent qvam in amicitiis comparan- 
dis, Cic. L^el. 17) . Irascor amicis, cur me funesto properent arcere 



§ 398 THE INFINITIVE. 357 

veterno (Hor. Ep. I. 8, 10), I am angry with my friends, asking, in 
thought, why they . 

§ 398. a. An accusative with the infinitive is used with the imper- 
sonal verbs which signify propriety or desirableness (oportet, decet, 
convenit, expedit, nihil attinet, interest, refert), and with other 
impersonal expressions consisting of sum and a substantive or ad- 
jective (as, opus, necesse, utile, rectum, turpe, fas, tempus, mos, 
nefas, facinus, etc.), by means of which a similar judgment is 
passed on the nature of an act or relation, while it is neither asserted 
nor suggested that the act or relation really exists : — 

Qvos ferro trucidari oportebat, eos nondum voce vulnero (Cic. 
Cat. I. 4). Accusatores multos esse in civitate, utile-est, ut metu 
contineatur audacia (Id. Rose. Am. 20). Omnibus bonis expedit, 
salvam esse rempublicam (Id. Phil. XIII. 8). Tempus est, nos 
de ilia perpetua jam, non de hac exigua vita cogitare (Id. ad Att. 
X. 8). Facinus est, civem Romanum vinciri (Id. Verr. V. 66). 
Haec benignitas etiam reipublicae utilis est (= utile est), redimi 
e servitute captos, locupletari tenuiores (Id. Off. II. 18). 

Obs. 1. Concerning the use of ut in propositions which are the object 
of a judgment, see § 374, Obs. 2. 

Obs. 2. Oportet, it is necessary, and necesse est are also constructed 
with a subjunctive without ut; § 373, Obs. 1. If it is not said who has 
to do a thing, the infinitive alone is employed (§ 388 : ex malis eligere 
minima oportet, Cic. Off. III. 1) ; but the proposition is often altered 
into an accusative with the infinitive passive : Hoc fieri et oportet et 
opus est (Cic. ad Att. XIII. 25). 

Obs. 3. By an inaccuracy of expression, a simple infinitive (active) 
and an accusative with the infinitive (passive) are sometimes combined 
in one judgment : Proponi oport9t, qvid afferas, et id qvare ita sit, 
ostendere (Cic. de Or. II. 41). 

b. If on the other hand it is intended to show that a thing (a 
circumstance, a relation of things) actually exists, and at the same 
time a judgment or remark is made and uttered concerning it, the 
thing spoken of is expressed by a proposition with qyod (that, the 
circumstance that ; with the indicative, if the mood of the leading 
proposition does not, according to § 369, require the subjunctive). 
Such a proposition with qvod (of a real fact) is often connected 
with a pronoun (hoc, illud, id, ea res, &c.) which points to it ; 
sometimes, too, with a substantive in the way of apposition (to 
explain it) : — 



358 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 398 

Eumeni inter Macedones viventi multum detraxit, qvod 
alienae erat civitatis (Corn. Eum. 1). Multa sunt in fabrica 
mundi admirabilia, sed nihil majus qvam qvod ita stabilis est 
atqve ita cohaeret ad permanendum, ut nihil ne excogitari qvidem 
possit aptius (Cic. N. D. II. 45). Non ea res me deterruit, qvomi- 
nus ad te litteras mitterem, qvod tu ad me nullas miser as (Id. ad 
Fam. VI. 22). Percommode factum est (cadit), qvod de morte 
et de dolor e primo et proximo die disputatum est (Id. Tusc. IV. 
30). Non pigritia facio, qvod non mea manu scribo (Id. ad Att. 
XVI. 15), that I do not write with my own hand does not proceed from 
laziness ; but, pigritia factum est, ut ad te non scriberem, my lazi- 
ness caused me not to write to you ; § 373. Hoc uno praestamus vel 
maxime feris, qvod exprimere dicendo sensa possumus (Id. de 
Or. I. 8). Aristoteles laudandus est in eo, qvod omnia, qvae 
moventur, aut natura moveri censet aut vi aut voluntate (Id. 
N. D. II. 16). Pro magnitudine injuriae proqve eo, qvod summa 
respublica in hujus periculo tentatur (Id. Rose. Am. 51), in propor- 
tion to the circumstance, that. Me una consolatio sustentat, qvod 
tibi nullum a me amoris, nullum pietatis officium defuit (Id. pro 
Mil. 36), one consolation, namely, that. (So also, accedit, qvod. See 
§ 373, Obs. 3. Praeterqvam qvod, except that. Praetereo, mitto, 
qvod, I passed by the circumstance, that, say nothing of it, that . 

Obs. 1. In saying, Utile est, Gajum adesse, we only express an 
opinion, in general, that the presence of Gaius is (will be) useful, but 
we do not say that he is actually present. If we say, on the other hand, 
Ad multas res magnae utilitati erit, qvod Gajus adest, we make it 
known that Gaius is present, and judge of the consequences of this fact. 
By the first form, however (the accusative with the infinitive), the pres- 
ence of Gaius is not denied : it may, therefore, be sometimes employed 
for the other, especially when a feeling produced by some particular cir- 
cumstance is, at the same time, indicated (compare § 397) : Nonne 
hoc indignissimum est, vos idoneos habitos, per qvorum senten- 
tias id asseqvantur, qvod antea ipsi scelere asseqvi consverunt ? 
(Cic. Rose. Am. 3.) Te hilari animo esse et prompto ad jocan- 
dum, valde me juvat (Id. ad Q. Fr. II. 13). 

Obs. 2. The leading proposition often contains, not a direct judg- 
ment or assertion concerning that which stands in the proposition with 
qvod, but an observation which is occasioned by and refers to it, so that 
qvod signifies as to the fact that ; e.g. Qvod autem me Agamemno- 
nem aemulari putas, falleris (Corn. Epam. 5) . Qvod scribis, te, si 
velim, ad me venturum, ego vero te istic esse volo (Cic. ad Fam. 
XIV. 3). Qvod autem deinde dicit, but as to the fact that he pro- 
ceeds to say, or, in briefer, but nearly equivalent English, but if he pro- 
ceeds to say. 



§400 THE INFINITIVE. 359 

Obs. 3. Of qvod (with the subjunctive), instead of the accusative 
with the infinitive after verba sentiendi and declarandi, only solitary 
examples are found, and those in the later writers. 

Obs. 4. Instead of a judgment expressed in a distinct proposition by 
an adjective and sum, followed by the accusative and infinitive, or by a 
proposition with qvod, an adverb alone is occasionally made use of: 
Utruin impudentius Verres hanc pecuniam a sociis abstulit an 
turpius meretrici dedit an improbius populo Romano adenait? 
(Cic. Yerr. III. 36). Utilius starent etiam nunc moenia Fhoebi 
(Ov. Her. I. 67) — utilius erat stare, &c. 

§ 399. An accusative with the infinitive sometimes stands with- 
out a governing proposition, in order to express surprise and com- 
plaint, that a thing happens or may happen, mostly with the 
interrogative particle ne (to denote inquiry and doubt) : — 

Me miserum ! Te, ista virtute, fide, probitate, in tantas aerum- 
nas propter me incidisse ! (Cic. ad Fam. XIY. 1) . Adeone homi- 
nem esse infelicem qvemqvam, ut ego sum ! (Ter. Andr. I. 5, 10) . 
That a man can be so unfortunate as I am ! Mene incepto desistere 
victam? (Yirg. ^En. I. 37). x 

Obs. (On §§ 395-399.) The beginner should accurately compare and 
distinguish the different ways in which the subordinate propositions, 
which, in English, are introduced by the conjunction that, are expressed 
in Latin, and, after putting aside those, in which that denotes a design 
or a consequence (in order that, so that), he must observe that the object 
of an effort or action is expressed by objective propositions with the sub- 
junctive (see the appendix to Chap. III.) ; the object of an opinion, 
knowledge, declaration, or feeling, on the other hand, by the accusative 
with the infinitive ; and a circumstance concerning which a judgment is 
expressed by the accusative with the infinitive, when a judgment is stated 
in general, or by a proposition with qvod, when the relation is denoted 
as actually existing. 

§ 400. a. Instead of an impersonal passive of a verb of saying, 
relating, informing, or of thinking, believing, finding, or of com- 
manding or forbidding (see § 396, Obs. 3), or of the verb videtur, 
it seems, appears, followed by an accusative with the infinitive (e.g. 
dicitur, patrem venisse), another mode of expression is used, the 
subject of the infinitive proposition being made the nominative sub- 
ject of the passive verb, and the infinitive being subjoined to com- 



1 In the following exclamation we have the infinitive only : Tantum laborem capere 
ob talem filium ! (Ter. Andr. v. 2, 27.) 



360 LATIN GRAMMAE. § 400 

plete the idea and the proposition. 1 (In this case every word, which 
is annexed to the infinitive, becomes nominative according to 
§393): — 

Lectitavisse Platonem studiose Demosthenes dicitur (Cic.Brut. 
31). Aristides unus omnium justissimus fuisse traditur (narra- 
tur, fertur). Oppugnata (sc. esse) domus Caesaris per multas 
noctis horas nuntiabatur (Cic. pro Mil. 24). Luna solis lumine 
collustrari putatur (Id. Div. II. 43). Regnante Tarqvinio Su- 
perbo in Italiam Pythagoras venisse reperitur (Id. R. P. II. 15). 
Malum mihi videtur esse mors. Videris mini (it appears to me that 
you) satis bene attendere. Videor mihi (or simply videor) Graece 

luculenter scire (it seems to me, that I , I believe that I ) . 

Visus sum mihi animos auditorum commovere. 

Obs. Even in an observation inserted parenthetically with ut (as it 
seems), videor is, almost always, referred personally to the subject 
spoken of: Ego tibi, qvod satis esset, paucis verbis, ut mihi vide- 
bar, responderam (Cic. Tusc. I. 46). Philargyrus tuus omnia 
fidelissimo animo, ut mihi qvidem visus est, narravit (Id. ad Fam. 
VI. 1). 

b. With verbs, however, of saying or thinking (but not with jubeor, 
vetor, prohibeor, or videor), the impersonal form of expression is 
more usual in the compound tenses : — 

Traditum est, Homerum caecum fuisse (Cic. Tusc. V. 39) ; and 
with the gerundive with sum, it is almost always used : Ubi tyrannus est, 
ibi dicendum est, plane nullam esse rempublicam (Id. R. P. III. 
31). (Julius Sabinus voluntaria morte interisse creditus est, Tac. 
Hist. IV. 67.) 

Obs. In the simple tenses, dicitur, traditur, existimatur, &c, are 
rarely used impersonally with an accusative with the infinitive : e.g. Earn 
gentem traditur fama Alpes transisse (Liv. V. 33) ; but nuntiatur and 
dicitur are so employed when followed by a dative : Non dubie mihi 
nuntiabatur, Parthos /transisse Euphratem (Cic. ad Fam. XV. 1) ; 
nuntiatur also without a dative : Ecce autem repente nuntiatur, pira- 
tarum naves esse in portu Odysseae (Id. Verr. V. 34) . With vide- 
tur (mihi), the accusative with the infinitive is employed very rarely (with 
jubetur, &c, never). 

c. The personal form of expression is also sometimes used instead 
of the impersonal in the passive of other verbs, which do not sig- 
nify to speak or to think in general, but denote a- more peculiar and 

1 This form is usually, but improperly, styled the nominative with the infinitive. 



§ 401 THE INFINITIVE. 361 

special kind of declaration, or knowledge ; as, scribor, demonstror, 
audior, intelligor, &c. ; e.g. : — 

Bibulus nondum audiebatur esse in Syria (Cic. ad Att. V. 18), 
as yet nothing was heard of BSs being in Syria. Scutorum gladiorum- 
qve multitude) deprehendi posse indicabatur (Id. pro Mil. 24). 
Ex hoc dii beati esse intelliguntur (Id. X. D. I. 38). Pompejus 
perspectus est a me toto animo de te cogitare (Id. ad Fam. I. 7) . 
But, in these cases, the impersonal form is the more usual. 

Obs. The poets and later writers extend this usage farther than the 
earlier prose-writers ; e.g. Colligor placuisse, for colligitur (it is in- 
ferred) me placuisse (Ov. Am. II. 6, 61). Suspectus fecisse (Sail.), 
compertus fecisse (Liv.). (Hi fratres in suspicionem venerant 
suis civibus fanum expilasse Apollinis, i.e. putabantur, Cic. Verr. 
IV. 13. Liberatur Milo non eo consilio profectus esse, ut insidia- 
retur Clodio, i.e. demonstratur, Id. pro Mil. 18.) 

d. When a statement of the words or opinion of another is com- 
menced in this way, and then continued through several infinitive propo- 
sitions (§ 403, 6), the latter take the accusative with the infinitive : Ad 
Themistoclem qvidam doctus homo accessisse dicitur eiqve 
artem memoriae pollicitus esse se traditurum ; qvum ille qvaesis- 
set, qvidnam ilia ars efficere posset, dixisse ilium doctorem, ut 
omnia meminisset (Cic. de Or. II. 74) . 

§ 401. If the subject in an accusative with the infinitive is a personal 
or reflective pronoun, which corresponds to the subject of the leading 
verb (dico, me esse; dicit, se esse), this pronoun (particularly me, 
te, se, more rarely nos, vos) is sometimes left out with verba decla- 
randi and putandi ; but this must be looked on as an irregularity : 
Confitere, ea spe hue venisse, qvod putares hie latrocinium, non 
judicium futurum (Cic. Rose. Am. 22) = te venisse. Qvum id 
nescire Mago diceret, nihil facilius scitu est, inqvit Hanno (Liv. 
XXIII. 13)=se id nescire. This is done, more especially when an 
accusative with the infinitive is dependent on another with the same sub- 
ject : Licet me existimes desperare ista posse perdiscere (Cic. de 
Or. III. 36) = me ista posse perdiscere. With the future infinitive act- 
ive, this omission occurs very frequently in the historians, in which 
case esse is also generally omitted : Alcon, precibus aliqvid motu- 
rum ratus, transiit ad Hannibalem (Liv. XXI. 12) = se moturum. 
Ne nocte qvidem turba ex eo loco dilabebatur, refracturosqve 
carcerem minabantur (Id. VI. 17). (On the contrary, it is hardly 
ever found Avith the perfect infinitive passive.) 

Obs. 1. When, in a continued oratio obliqva (§ 403, &), several 
accusatives with the infinitive have se for their subject, it is often 
omitted. 



362 LATIN GRAMMAR. §402 

Obs. 2. It is important to discriminate between this and the occa- 
sional omission, before the infinitive, of a personal or demonstrative 
pronoun which does not refer to the subject of the leading proposition, 
when it may be easily ascertained from the connection, and from the 
previous mention of it : Petam a vobis, ut ea, qvae dicam, non de 
memet ipso, sed de oratore dicere putetis (Cic. Or. III. 20). Vale- 
rius dictatura se abdicavit. Apparuit causa plebi, suam (sc. ple- 
bis) vicem indignantem magistratu abisse (Liv. II. 31). 

Obs. 3. The poets, in some few instances, put a simple infinitive with 
the nominative, as in Greek, instead of the accusative with the infini- 
tive, when it has the same subject as the main proposition : Vir bonus 
et sapiens dignis ait esse paratus = (se paratuni esse Hor. Ep. I. 
7, 22). (Sensit medios delapsus in hostes = se delapsum esse 
Yirg. ^En. II. 377.) 

§ 402. a. Propositions subordinate to the accusative and infinitive 
retain the customary form of the oratio finita. Yet the accusative with the 
infinitive is used in them if they are relative propositions, in case the rela- 
tive only continues the thought, so that it might be changed to a demon- 
strative with or without et : Postea autem Gallus dicebat ab Eudoxo 
Cnidio sphaeram (a celestial globe) astris coelo inhaerentibus esse 
descriptam, cujus omnem ornatum et descriptionem sumptam ab 
Eudoxo, Aratum extulisse versibus (Cic. R. P. I. 14). It might 
also read : esse descriptam ; ejus omnem ornatum, &c. Marcellus, 
qvum Syracusas cepisset, reqvisivisse dicitur Archimedem ilium, 
qvem qvum audisset interfectum, permoleste tulisse (Cic. Verr. 
IV. 58) = et, qvum audisset interfectum, permoleste tulisse. (So 
also, Jacere tarn diu irritas sanctiones, qvae de suis commodis 
ferrentur, qvum interim de sangvine et supplicio suo latam legem 
confestim exerceri, for et interim, Liv. IV. 51. But such examples, 
with relative conjunctions, are very unusual.) 1 

b. If one subject of a proposition is compared with another (by qvam, 
atqve, or idem qvi, tantus qvantus, and similar expressions) , so that 
the same verb obviously belongs to both (e.g. Iisdem rebus com- 
moveris, qvibus ego, sc. commoveor), and the leading proposition 
is an accusative with the infinitive, the second subject is also put in the 
accusative, although its verb should be, strictly speaking, understood 
with it in a finite mood, because the governing verb (on which the accusa- 
tive with the infinitive depends) cannot be applied to this member of the 

1 Porsena prae se ferebat, qvemadmodum, si non dedatur obses, pro 
rupto se foedus habiturum, sic deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum 
(Liv. II. 13) = prae pe ferebat, si non dedatur obses, se — habiturum, deditam 
contra, &c. Admonemus, cives nos eorum esse et, si non easdem opes 
habere, eandem tamen patriam incolere (Id. IV. 3). 



§403 THE INFINITIVE. 363 

proposition: Suspicor, te eisdem rebus qvibus me ipsum com- 
moveri (Cic. Cat. M. 1) ; properly, qvibus ipse commoveor. 
Antonius ajebat, se tantidem frumentum aestimasse, qvanti Sa- 
cerdotem (Id. Yerr. III. 92) ; properly, qvanti Sacerdos aestimas- 
set. (Attraction. Compare § 303, 6.) 

c. If two propositions, each of which has its own verb, are compared 
by a comparative with qvam, and the leading proposition passes over into 
the accusative with the infinitive, the subordinate proposition sometimes 
takes the same form : Num putatis dixisse Antonium minacius 
qvam facturum fuisse ? (Cic. Phil. V. 8.) Anlrmavi qvidvis me 
potius perpessurum qvam ex Italia exiturum (Id. ad Fam. II. 16). 
Consilium dicebant specie prima melius fuisse qvam usu apparitu- 
rum (Liv. IY. 60). This, however, is rare, especially when (as in the 
last example) the subjunctive should stand in the oratio recta after 
qvam (according to § 360, Obs. 4), which mood is then commonly re- 
tained : Certum habeo, majores qvoqve qvamlibet dimicationem 
subituros fuisse potius qvam eas leges sibi imponi paterentur (Liv. 
IY. 2). 

§ 403. a. An accusative with the infinitive is often put without 
being governed directly by a verbum sentiendi or declarandi, 
where a person is mentioned immediately before in such a way, 
that a speech, an opinion, or a, resolution is ascribed to him, and 
the purport of his speech or opinion, or the reasoning on which he 
acts, is now alleged, so that one may supply in one's mind, he says 
(said), he thinks (thought), or some equivalent expression: — 

Regulus in senatum venit, mandata exposuit: sententiam ne 
diceret, recusavit; qvarndiu jurejurando hostium teneretur, non 
esse se senatorem (Cic. Off. III. 27), for (he thought and said), so 
long as lie icas bound by the oath exacted from him by the enemy \ he was 
no senator. Romulus legatos circa vicinas gentes misit, qvi socie- 
tatem connubiumqve novo populo peterent; Urbes qvoqve, ut 
cetera, ex infimo nasci ; deinde, qvas sua virtus ac dii juvent, 
magnas opes sibi magnumqve nomen facere, &c. (Liv. I. 9. This 
is the language which Romulus desired the ambassadors to hold.) This 
use of the accusative with the infinitive, in which the speaker or writer 
adduces not his own expressions and thoughts, but those of others, is 
specially called oratio obliqva, as distinguished from the oratio di- 
recta. 

Obs. 1. Sometimes the name oratio obliqva is used of every gram- 
matical way of expressing the thought of a third party. See § 369. 

Obs. 2. Sometimes the transition to this accusative with the infinitive 
takes place very abruptly, no indication being given by any particular 



364 LATIN GRAMMAR. §404 

word, that the expressions or ideas of another person are introduced ; 
e.g. Conticuit adolescens : haud dubie videre aliqva impedimenta 
pugnae consulem, qvae sibi non apparerent (Liv. XLIY. 36). 
Sometimes a negative verb precedes, from which an affirmative idea 
(says, thinks) is to be supplied : Regulus reddi captivos negavit esse 
utile ; illos enim adolescentes esse et bonos duces, se jam con- 
fectum senectute (Cic. Off. III. 27). 

b. In the same way entire speeches or discussions of other per- 
sons and their views are often cited in a series of accusatives with 
the infinitive, the first of which is either directly governed by a 
verb, or put in the way above mentioned under a (continuous oratio 
obliqva). With reference to this it is to be noticed, that a speech 
or argument belonging to past time, and connected with a verb in 
the preterite, should regularly be continued as depending on the 
preterite, the subordinate propositions being thus required to stand 
in the imperfect or pluperfect. Yet a transition to the present may 
take place, the leading verb understood being thought of as if it 
were the historical present (he says, &c). If the oratio obliqva 
begins with a historical present, it is continued in the present, but 
may also (according to § 382, Obs. 3) be changed to the preterite. 
Examples of such a continuous oratio obliqva (some of them ex- 
hibiting the variations above noticed in the tenses of the subordinate 
propositions) may be found in Caesar in the first book of the Gallic 
War, Chaps. 13, 14, 17, 18, 20, 31, 35, 36, 44, 45, and in Livy in 
the first book, Chaps. 50, 53 ; in the second book, Chap. 6, &c. 

§ 404. That which, in the oratio directa, was expressed in the im- 
perative, or in the subjunctive with the force of a command or prohibi- 
tion, is expressed, in the oratio obliqva, by the subjunctive ; and in 
such a way, that the present of the former becomes the imperfect of the 
latter (they should, he said = you shall; they were not to believe — you 
are not to believe) : Sin bello perseqvi perseveraret, reminiscere- 
tur pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum. Qvare ne committeret, ut is 
locus ex calamitate populi Romani nomen caperet (Caes. B. G. I. 
13 = si bello per sever as, reminiscitor pristinae virtutis Helveti- 
orum. Qvare ne commiseris, ut .) Burrus praetorianos nihil 

adversus progeniem Germanici ausuros respondit ; perpetraret 
Anicetus promissa (Tac. Ann. XIV 7=perpetret Anic). The 
present may, however, be retained, if the first governing verb is the his- 
torical present, or if the narrative is changed to the historical present : 
Vercingetorix perfacile esse factu dicit frumentationibus Roma- 



§407 THE INFINITIVE. 365 

nos prohibere aeqvo modo animo sua ipsi frumenta corrum- 
pant aedificiaqve incendant (Cses. B. G. VII. 64) = aeqvo modo 
animo vestra ipsi frumenta corrumpite. 

§ 405. a. Questions which occur in the oratio directa in the indica- 
tive are expressed in the oratio obliqva by the accusative with the infini- 
tive, if, in the oratio directa, they stood in the first or third person, 
but in the subjunctive, if the second person was there made use of, in 
which case the present or perfect of the direct discourse is regularly 
changed to the imperfect and pluperfect. (Yet the present may be 
retained here also, according to § 403.) If the question in the oratio 
directa is asked in the first person, then the speaker is commonly repre- 
sented, in the oratio obliqva, by the reflective pronoun se; but this may 
be omitted (especially if the same subject is found also in the preceding 
propositions) , so that the first and third persons are only distinguished 
by the context (as in the oratio obliqva in English all three are ex- 
pressed by he, they) : Qvid se vivere, qvid in parte civium censeri* 
si, qvod duorum hominum virtute partum sit, id obtinere universi 
non possint ? (Liv. VII. 18 == qvid vivimus, qvid in parte civium 
censemur ?) Si veteris contumeliae oblivisci vellet, num etiam 
recentium injuriarum memoriam deponere posse? (Caes. B. G. 1. 14 ; 
with the omission of se = si — volo, num — possum?) An qvic- 
qvam superbius esse qvam ludificari sic omne nomen Latinum ? 
(Liv. I. 50) = an qvicqvam superbius est ? Scaptione haec as- 
signaturos putarent flnitimos populos ? (Liv. III. 72) == putatis ? 
Qvid de praeda faciendum censerent ? (Liv. V. 20) = censetis ? 

Obs. Exceptions to this, where questions of the first and third per- 
son are put in the subjunctive, or questions of the second person in the 
infinitive, are rare. 

b. Questions which, in direct discourse, are put in the subjunctive, 
(§ 350, a, and § 353) retain the subjunctive (usually with an alteration 
of the tense) : Qvis sibi hoc persvaderet ? (Caes. B. G. V. 29) = qvis 
sibi hoc persvadeat? Cur fortunam periclitaretur ? (Id. B. C.I. 
72) = cur fortunam pericliter ? 

§ 406. In the infinitive the three leading tenses are distinguished 
as in the indicative : Dico eum venire, venisse, venturum esse ; 
dico eum decipi, deceptum esse, deceptum iri. In the tenses 
compounded with esse this word is often omitted, whether the infini- 
tive has an accusative or a nominative connected with it : Victual 
me video. Facturum se dixit. Hannibal deceptus errore loco- 
rum traditur. 

§ 407. The perfect infinitive designates the action as finished and 
complete: Poteras dixisse (Hor. A. P. 328), you might have already 



366 LATIN GRAMMAR. §408 

said, Bellum ante hiemem perfecisse possumus (Liv. XXXVIL 

19) , we may have finished the war ; but little differing from perficere 
poterimus. In this signification, the perfect infinitive occasionally stands 
in Latin with satis est, satis habeo, contentus sum, where the present 
is used in English, and particularly with the expressions poenitebit, 
pudebit, pigebit, juvabit, melius erit, to signify what will follow the 
completion of the action expressed by the infinitive : Proinde qviesse 
erit melius? (Liv. III. 48). 

Obs. 1. With oportuit, decuit, convenit, debueram, oportuerat, 
&c, when used for the purpose of telling what ought to have been done 
(§ 348, Obs. 1) , the perfect infinitive is often employed in the active and 
commonly in the passive, and in the latter usually without esse : Tunc 
decuit flesse (Liv. XXX. 44). Ego id, qvod jampridem factum 
esse oportuit, certa de causa nondum facio (Cic. Cat. I. 2) . Ado- 
lescenti morem gestum oportuit (Ter. Ad. II. 2, 6) . 

Obs. 2. In the poets, the perfect infinitive active is sometimes used 
(like the Greek aorist) for the present infinitive, but only as a simple 
infinitive after a verb (especially after verba voluntatis et potestatis), 
not as a subject (§ 388, a), nor in the accusative with the infinitive : Fra- 
tres tendentes opaco Pelion imposuisse Olympo (Hor. Od. III. 4, 
52) . Immanis in antro bacchatur vates, magnum si pectore pos- 
sit excussisse deum (Virg. iEn. VI. 77). (In the earlier style, volo 
is constructed in prohibitions with the perfect infinitive ; e.g. consules 
edixerunt, ne qvis qvid fugae causa vendidisse vellet, Liv. 
XXXIX. 17). 

§ 408. a. There is no special form of the infinitive to represent the 
imperfect (so that after a leading verb in the present or future the imper- 
fect indicative of direct discourse always becomes the perfect infinitive : 
Narrant ilium, qvoties filium conspexisset, ingemuisse == in- 
gemiscebat, qvoties filium conspexerat) , nor the pluperfect in the 
active voice. In the passive, the perfect participle is used with fuisse, 
as in the indicative with fui or eram, to express a condition (imperfect 
of the condition) ; e.g. Dico Luculli adventu maximas Mithridatis 
copias omnibus rebus ornatas atqve instructas fuisse urbemqve 
Cyzicenorum obsessam esse ab ipso rege et oppugnatam vehemen- 
tissime (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 8) = copiae ornatae atqve instructae 
erant urbsqve obsidebatur. In this way, too, the pluperfect of an 
action may sometimes be expressed ; e.g. nego litteras jam turn scrip- 
tas fuisse. (But it is never used for the conditional pluperfect in the 
subjunctive. See § 409.) 

b. In the accusative with the infinitive, after a governing verb in the 
past time (as well as after the historical present), the present, perfect, 
and future infinitive are used of a thing which, at the time indicated in 



§409 THE INFINITIVE. 367 

the leading proposition, was present, past, or future, consequently as the 
imperfect, pluperfect, and futurum in praeterito ; Dicebat, dixit, 
dixerat, se timere (that he feared, was afraid) , se timuisse, decep- 
tion esse (that he had feared, had been deceived), se venturum esse, 
deceptum iri (that he woidd come, shoidd be deceived) . 

Obs. 1. The perfect infinitive must always stand after a perfect, when 
something is designated that was past at the time of the leading proposi- 
tion, though the pluperfect may not be used in English ; e.g. Multi scrip- 
tores tradiderunt, regem in praelio adfuisse (have related, that the 
king was present). 

Obs. 2. The present infinitive is commonly used after the perfect 
memini (which has the signification of a present) , when a past transac- 
tion is spoken of, of which one has been an actual witness, and which 
one calls to mind (as if the signification were, I noticed, ivhen the trans- 

action took place, that ) : Memini Catonem anno ante, qvam 

est mortuus, mecum et cum Scipione disserere (Cic. Lael. 3). L. 
Metellum memini puer (2" remember from the years of my boyhood) 
ita bonis esse viribus extremo tempore aetatis, ut adolescentiam 
non reqvireret (Id. Cat. M. 9). On the other hand, the perfect 
infinitive is always used of a thing of which one has not been an actual 
witness : Memineram C. Marium, qvum vim armorum profugis- 
set, senile corpus paludibus occultasse (Cic. pro Sest. 22) ; and 
the perfect may also stand in the first case, if the object be merely to 
contrast the thing remembered with the present, and to avoid ambi- 
guity: Meministis me ita initio distribuisse causam (Cic. Rose. 
Am. 42 ; this might also have been expressed by distribuere). So 
also with memoria teneo (Cic. Philipp. VIII. 10, and Verr. V. 16). 

§ 409. To represent the conditional pluperfect subjunctive, the 
part. fut. with faisse is employed in the infinitive of the active 
voice (faeturus fuisse, corresponding to faeturus fui ; § 342. Com- 
pare § 348, a, and § 381) : — 

Num Gn. Pompejum censes tribus suis consulatibus, tiibus 
triumphis laetaturum fuisse, si sciret se in solitudine Aegyptio- 
rum trucidatum iri ? (Cic. Div. II. 9) . In the passive, the periphra- 
sis futurum fuisse, ut (it would have happened, that) is made use of: 
Theophrastus moriens accusasse naturam dicitur, qvod homini- 
bus tarn exiguam vitam dedisset ; nam si potuisset esse longin- 
qvior, futurum fuisse, ut omnes artes perficerentur (Cic. Tusc. III. 
28). (Platonem existimo, si genus forense dicendi tractare volu- 
isset, gravissime et copiosissime potuisse dicere, Cic. Off. I. 1, be- 
cause it would be expressed, in the oratio recta, Plato potuit, accord- 
ing to § 348, c.) 



368 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 411 

Obs. The conditional imperfect subjunctive may be expressed after 
a preterite by the future infinitive as the futurum in praeterito (in the 
passive, by futurum esse or fore, ut) : Titurius clamabat, si Caesar 
adesset, neqve Carnutes interficiendi Tasgetii consilium fuisse 
capturos (= cepissent), neqve Eburones tanta cum contemptione 
nostra ad castra venturos esse (=venirent, Cses. B. G. V. 29). 
But the transition to the oratio obliqva after a preterite usually involves 
the change of the imperfect into the pluperfect, or at least permits that 
change ; e.g. Si ditior essem, plus darem = dixit se, si ditior esset, 
plus daturum fuisse. 

§ 410. For the fut. infin., both in the active and passive voice, a 
periphrasis with fore (sometimes futurum esse), ut (amem or 
amer, that it will happen, that — ), is often made use of; e.g. Clama- 
bant homines, fore, ut ipsi sese dii immortales ulciscerentur 
(Cic. Verr. IV. 40) ; especially in verbs, which want the supine 
and the future participle : — 

Video te velle in coelum migrare ; spero fore, ut contingat id 
nobis (Cic. Tusc. I. 34). 

Obs. 1. The infinitive posse is also usually employed where one might 
have expected the future (will be able) , especially after spero : Roscio 
damnato, sperat Chrysogonus se posse, qvod adeptus est per 
scelus, id per luxuriam effundere (Cic. Rose. Am. 2). 

Obs. 2. Fore with the part. perf. corresponds to the future perfect 
(in passive and deponent verbs) : Carthaginienses debellatum mox 
fore rebantur (Liv. XXIII. 13), that they should soon have terminated 
the war. Hoc dico, me satis adeptum fore, si ex tanto in omnes 
mortales beneficio nullum in me periculum redundarit (Cic. pro 
Sull. 9). 



CHAPTER VII. 

OF THE SUPINE, GERUND, AND GERUNDIVE. 

§ 411. The first (active) Supine, in um, is used after verbs which 
signify motion (e.g. eo, venio, aliqvem mitto), to express the design 
with which the motion takes place, and is constructed with the case 
of its verb : — 

Legati in castra Aeqvorum venerunt qvestum injurias (Liv. HI. 
25) . Fabius Pictor Delphos ad oraculum missus est sciscitatum 



§ 413 OF THE SUPINE, GERUND, AND GERUNDIVE. 369 

qvibus precibus deos possent placare (Id. XXII. 57). Lacedae- 
monii senem sessum receperunt (Cic. Cat. M. 18), to sit among 
them. 

Obs. 1. We also find: Dare alicui aliqvam nuptum (to give in 
marriage to any one) . Eo perditum, eo ultum, have almost the same 
meaning; as, perdo, ulciscor (I go to destroy). 

Obs. 2. That which is expressed by the supine may also be indicated 
by ut, ad, causa (qverendi causa), or by the participle future (§ 424, 
Obst 5). The poets sometimes use the simple infinitive, instead of 
this supine : Proteus pecus egit altos visere montes (Hor. Od. 
I. 2, 7). 

§ 412. The second supine, in u, is used with adjectives, to denote 
that the quality they express is attributed to the subject of the pro- 
position in reference to a certain action, performed upon it (conse- 
quently in a passive signification) : — 

Hoc dictu qvam re facilius est. Honestum, turpe factu (to do, 
if one does it) . Uva peracerba gustatu (to taste) . Qvid est tarn 
jucundum cognitu atqve auditu qvam sapientibus sententiis 
gravibusqve verbis ornata oratio ? (Cic. de Or. I. 8). 

Obs. 1. Some few adjectives, especially facile, difficile, and proclive, 
stand in the neuter with a supine, even when they properly refer to an 
active infinitive as their subject, and are followed by a proposition which 
ought to depend on this infinitive : Difficile dictu est, qvanto opere 
conciliet homines comitas affabilitasqve sermonis (Cic. Off. II. 
14) == dicere ad calamitatum societates, non est facile inventu 
(— invenire), qvi descendant (Id. Lael. 17). In the same way, fas 
and nefas are also used : Nefas est dictu, miseram fuisse Fabii Max- 
imi senectutem (Cic. Cat. M. 5). 

Obs. 2. The supine rarely stands with dignus, indignus ; e.g. Nihil 
dictu dignum (Liv. IX. 43) = Nihil dignum, qvod dicatur. 

Obs. 3. Ad (with regard to) with the gerund is often used in the 
same signification as the second supine, particularly after facilis, diffi- 
cilis, jucundus ; e.g. Res facilis ad intelligendum, easy to under- 
stand. Verba ad audiendum jucunda (Cic. de Or. I. 49). In the 
poets and later writers, we find such constructions as the following with 
the infinitive : facilis legi, easy to read. Cereus in vitium flecti (Hor. 
A. P. 161). 

§ 413. The Gerund (which has only the oblique cases) is used 
to express the meaning of the present infinitive active (that is, the 
absolute meaning of the verb), when the infinitive ought to stand 
in some particular case (not the nominative) ; e.g. studium obtempe- 

24 



370 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 414 

randi legibus (see the following sections). If the verb governs the 
accusative, then in place of the gerund and the accusative governed 
by it (e.g. consilium capiendi urbem; perseqyendo hostes, by 
pursuing the enemy) the word so governed may be put in the case 
of the gerund with the gerundive for its adjective (consilium 
urbis capiendae ; perseqvendis hostibus), so that the substantive 
and gerundive together represent the action as taking place in refer- 
ence to the person or thing named in the substantive. If • the 
gerund would have to be governed by a preposition, the expression 
with the gerundive is used always with the accusative, and almost 
always with the ablative ; thus, ad placandos deos (not ad pla- 
candum deos), in victore laudando (not in laudando victorem). 1 
The dative also of the gerund with an accusative (esse onus 
ferendo, for oneri ferendo) is very unusual. 

Obs. 1. In all other cases (the genitive and the ablative without a 
preposition) , the choice between the gerund with an accusative and the 
gerundive is determined by euphony and perspicuity, or the mere pleas- 
ure of the writer. Some writers, therefore, retain the gerund far more 
frequently than others, who (as, Cicero and Ceesar) prefer using the 
gerundive. Yet the gerund is mostly retained when the object is a neuter 
adjective or pronoun ; e.g. studium aliqvid agendi, falsum fatendo (by 
confessing something that is false), cupiditas plura habendi, — except 
where the neuter singular denotes an abstract idea ; studium veri inve- 
niendi (of discovering the truth). 

Obs. 2. In the earlier writers, we occasionally meet with a remarkable 
irregularity ; the accusative plural, which should be governed by a gerund 
in the genitive (e.g. facultas agros latronibus condonandi), being 
turned into the genitive, as if the gerundive were to be employed (agro- 
rum condonandorum), while the gerund itself still remains unaltered : 
Agitur, utrum M. Antonio facultas detur opprimendae reipublicae 
caedis faciendae bonorum, diripiendae urbis, agrorum suis latroni- 
bus condonandi (Cic. Phil. V. 3). 

§ 414. a. The infinitive, partly from its own nature, and partly 
from the usage of the language, cannot occur in all those relations 
to other words, in which an actual substantive would be placed. 
Hence the cases of the gerund (and of the gerundive used for it) 
are not always found where the same cases of a substantive would 
be employed. 

1 In the published editions of Latin authors, such expressions as ad levandum fortu- 
nam for ad levandam fortunam, and the like, are inaccuracies of the press. 



§415 OF THE SUPINE, GERUND, AND GERUNDIVE. 371 

Obs. In a very few instances, a gerund, or a substantive having a gerun- 
dive agreeing with it, is put in apposition with a substantive word, whose 
construction is such as would be regular for a gerund : Nunqvam ingeni- 
um idem ad res diversissimas, parendum atqve imperandum, habil- 
ius fuit (Liv. XXI. 4). Non immemor ejus, qvod initio consu- 
lates imbiberat, reconciliandi animos plebis (Id. II. 47). 

b. The accusative of the gerund (or of the gerundive combined 
with a substantive) occurs only after a preposition, very frequently 
ad, less frequently inter, during (an action), and ob : — 

Breve tempus aetatis satis longum est ad bene honesteqve 
vivendum (Cic. Cat. M. 19). Natura animum ornavit sensibus 
ad res percipiendas idoneis (Id. Finn. V. 21). Tuis libris nos- 
met ipsi ad veterum rerum memoriam comprehendendam impulsi 
sumus (Id. Brut. 5) . (Facilis ad intelligendum. See § 412, Obs. 
3.) Cicero inter agendum nunqvam est destitutus scientia juris 
(Quinct. XII. 3, 10). T. Herminius inter spoliandum corpus hos- 
tis veruto percussus est (Liv. II. 20). Flagitiosum est ob rem 
judicandam pecuniam accipere (Cic. Verr. II. 32). 

Obs. It is only in isolated unusual constructions that the gerund (or 
gerundive) stands after ante, in, circa; e.g. Qvae ante conditam 
condendamve urbem traduntur (Liv. praef.), what is handed down 
from the times before the city was built, or in building. Conferre aliqvid 
in rempublicam conservandam atqve amplificandam (Cic. pro Leg. 
Man. 16; usually, ad). 

§ 415. The dative of the gerund or gerundive (which latter is 
almost always found where the gerund, if used, would govern an 
accusative, § 413) is employed after verbs and phrases which may 
have for their remote object an action that is in progress (as, prae- 
esse, operam dare, diem dicere, locum capere, to fix a time, a 
place, for the doing of something) ; and after adjectives which de- 
note a fitness and adaptation for a certain action or destination : — 

Praeesse agro colendo (Cic. Rose. Am. 18). Meum laborem 
hominum periculis sublevandis impertio (Id. pro Mur. 4) . Con- 
sul placandis dis dat operam (Liv. XXII. 2). Ver ostendit fruc- 
tus futuros ; reliqva tempora demetendis fructibus et percipiendis 
accommodata sunt (Cic. Cat. M. 19). Genus armorum aptum 
tegendis corporibus (Liv. XXXII, 10). Area firma templis por- 

ticibusqve sustinendis (Id. II. 5),frm enough to . Animis 

natum inventumqve poema juvandis (Hor. A. P. 377). (But after 
such adjectives, ad with the accusative of the gerund is more frequently 
employed.) 



372 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 416 

The dative of the gerund also expresses a destination in official 
appellations (especially with compounds of vir) ; e.g. decemviri 
legibus scribendis; curator muris reficiendis; and after comi- 
tia: — 

Valerius consul comitia collegae subrogando habuit (Liv. 
n. 8). 

Obs. 1. We should especially notice esse with the dative of the 
gerund (esse solvendo) or gerundive, signifying to be in a condition to, 
able to, capable of (particularly of payments and pecuniary obligations) : 
Tributo plebes liberata est, ut divites conferrent, qvi oneri ferendo 
essent (Liv. II. 9). Experiunda res est, sitne aliqvi plebejus, 
ferendo magno honori (Id. IV. 35). (The same construction occurs 
with sufficere.) 

Obs. 2. Some writers occasionally employ the dative of a substantive 
with the gerundive after other expressions also, to denote a destination 
and purpose ; e.g. His avertendis terroribus in triduum feriae in- 
dictae (Liv. III. 5). Non exercitus, non dux, scribendo exer- 
citui erat (Id. IV. 43). Germanicus Caecinam cum qvadraginta 
cohortibus distrahendo hosti ad flumen Amisiam misit (Tac. 
Ann. I. 60). 

§ 416. The ablative of the gerund or gerundive stands sometimes 
as an ablative of the means and instrument, sometimes after the 
prepositions in, ab, de, ex. 

Homines ad deos nulla re propius accedunt qvam salutem 
hominibus dando (Cic. pro Lig. 12). Volscus stando et vigiliis 
fessus erat (Liv. II. 65). Omnis loqvendi elegantia augetur legen- 
dis oratoribus et poetis (Cic. de Or. III. 10). Tempus absumere 
legationibus audiendis. In voluptate spernenda virtus vel maxime 
cernitur (Id. Legg. I. 19) . Aristotelem non deterruit a scribendo 
amplitudo Platonis (Id. Or. I.). Primus liber Tusculanarum dis- 
putationum est de contemnenda morte (Id. Div. II. 1). Summa 
voluptas ex discendo capitur (Id. Finn. V. 18). 

Obs. 1. Sometimes, the ablative of the gerundive and gerund denotes 
rather the way and manner, the modal relation shown by the identity of 
time, [as, in English, by the word while, " lest while ye gather up the 
tares, ye root up the wheat, also," for which might be substituted, 
"lest by gathering up the tares," &c, which comes very near the 
gerundive expression] : Qvis est enim, qvi nullis officii praeceptis 
tradendis philosophum se audeat dicere ? (Cic. Off. I. 2, ivho, while 
he teaches no rules of duty). L. Cornelius, complexus Appium, non, 
cui simulabat, consulendo, diremit certamen (Liv. III. 41), while he 



§417 OF THE SUPINE, GERUND, AND GERUNDIVE. 373 

did not consult for the interests of the person for whose interests he pre- 
tended to consult. 

Obs. 2. The ablative of the gerund (or gerundive) is very rarely- 
governed by a verb, an adjective, or the preposition pro : Appius non 
abstitit continuando magistratu (Liv. IX. 34). Contentus possi- 
dendis agris (Id. VI. 14), content with possessing the lands; usually, 
possessione agrorum. Pro omnibus gentibus conservandis aut 
juvandis maximos labores suscipere (Cic. Off. III. 5). (Nullum 
officium referenda gratia magis est necessarium, Id. Off. I. 15, as 
the ablative after the comparative.) 

Obs. 3. Since the preposition sine is never used with the gerund, the 
beginner may here notice the different ways in which without, followed 
by a verbal noun, is rendered in Latin. That which does not happen, 
when spoken of as something contemporaneous, is expressed by the 
participle present, either in apposition to the subject or the object, 
or in the form of the ablative absolute ; what does not" happen or has 
not happened, previously, by the participle perfect: Miserum est 
nihil proficientem angi (Cic. "N. D. III. 6). Nihil adversi accidit 
non praedicente me (Id. ad Fam. VI. 6) . Romani non rogati G-rae- 
cis auxilium offerunt (Liv. XXXIV. 23) . Consul, non exspectato 
auxilio collegae, pugnam committit. Natura dedit usuram vitae 
tanqvam pecuniae, nulla praestituta die (Cic. Tusc. 3k 39) . A con- 
dition precedent is expressed by nisi : Haec dijudicari non possunt, 
nisi ante causam cognoverimus (sometimes, Haec dijudicare non 
poterimus nisi melius de causa edocti, or, nisi causa ante cognita. 
See § 424, Obs. 4; § 428, Obs. 2.) To express a necessary conse- 
quence or a necessarily accompanying circumstance, ut non or qvin is 
employed, according to § 440, a, Obs. 3 ; or qvi non : nihil ab illis 
tentatur, de qvo non ante mecum deliberent. In some cases, a 
connection by a copulative conjunction may convey the same meaning : 
Fieri potest, ut recte qvis sentiat, et id, qvod sentit, polite eloqvi 
non possit (Cic. Tusc. I. 3), without being able to express his ideas with 
elegance. 

§ 417. The genitive of the gerund or gerundive stands after sub- 
stantives and adjectives as an objective genitive (§§ 283 and 289) ; 
after substantives which denote the quality of an act, and, further, 
after substantives, as a denning genitive (genitivus definitivus, 
e.g. verbum monendi = the word monere, see § 286) to define a 
generic word by a specific word of the same class : — 

Cum spe vincendi abjecisti etiam pugnandi cupiditatem (Cic. 
ad Fam. IV. 7) . Parsimonia est scientia vitandi sumptus super- 
vacuos aut ars re familiari moderate utendi (Sen. de Benef. II. 34). 



374 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 417 

Ita nati factiqve sumus, ut et agendi aliqvid et diligendi aliqvos 
et referendae gratiae principia in nobis contineremus (Cic. Finn. 
V. 15) . Germanis neqve consilii habendi neqve arma capiendi 
spatium datum est (Cses. B. G. IV. 14). Potestas mihi data est 
augendae dignitatis tuae (Cic. ad Fam. X. 13). Voluntas, con- 
svetudo aliqvid faciendi. Vestis frigoris depellendi causa re- 
perta primo est (Id. de Or. III. 38) . Sp. Maelius in suspicionem 

incidit regni appetendi (Id. pro Mil. 27, suspicion of aiming at ; 

regni appetiti, of having aimed at ). Cicero auctor non fuit 

Caesaris interficiendi (Id. ad Fam. XII. 2). Principes civitatis 
non tarn sui conservandi qvam tuorum consiliorum reprimendo- 
rum causa Roma profugerunt (Id. Cat. 1.3; = se conservandi. 
For se the genitive sui is put in the neuter, according to § 297, b, if the 
gerundive is used, and that whether se be the singular or the plural) . 
Maxima illecebra est peccandi impunitatis spes (Id. pro Mil. 16 ; 
the genitive with illecebra, according to § 283, Obs. 3). Peritus 
nandi. Valde sum cupidus in longiore te ac perpetua disputa- 
tione audiendi (Cic. de Or. II. 4). Neuter sui protegendi cor- 
poris memor erat (Liv. II. 6) . Difficultas navigandi. Arrogantia 
respondendi, in replying. Triste est nomen ipsum carendi (Cic. 
Tusc. I. 36), the word "to want." (Duo sunt genera liberalitatis, 
unum dandi beneficii, alterum reddendi, Id. Off. I. 15. Compare 
§ 286, Obs. 2.) 

Obs. 1. The genitive of the gerund is not governed by verbs (obli- 
tus sum facere, pudet me facere). 

Obs. 2. Some few substances, which may be constructed with the 
genitive of the gerund, may acquire, in conjunction with est, the force 
of an impersonal expression (will, inclination, &c), after which the 
infinitive is employed (§ 389). Thus, we find Tempus est abire (but 
tempus committendi praelii, a favorable time for giving battle) : 
nulla ratio est ejusmodi occasionem amittere (Cic. pro Caec. 5) ; 
consilium est (my plan is = decrevi) exitum exspectare. (The 
following is more unusual : Ii, qvibus in otio vel magnifice vel mol- 
liter vivere copia erat, Sail. Cat. 17 = licebat.) In the same way, 
consilium capio usually stands with the infinitive : e.g. Galli consil- 
ium ceperunt ex oppido profugere (Ca?s. B. G. VII. 26), sometimes 
also consilium ineo. (The following is the usual construction: M. 
Lepidus interficiendi Caesaris consilia inierat, Yell. II. 88 ; and in 
the passive it is exclusively employed : Inita sunt consilia urbis 
delendae, Cic. pro Mur. 37.) Sometimes, also, the meaning of such a 
phrase gives occasion to the addition of a proposition with ut ; e.g. Sub- 
ito consilium cepi, ut, anteqvam luceret, exirem (Cic. ad Att. VII. 
10. Compare § 373 and § 389, Obs. 1.) Concerning the use of 



§ 419 OF THE SUPINE, GERUND, AND GERUNDIVE. 375 

the infinitive instead of the genitive of the gerund by the poets, see 
§ 419. 

Obs. 3. Ad is, in a few instances, employed after certain phrases (e.g. 
facultatem dare, afferre, locum, signum dare, aliqva or nulla est ra- 
tio) instead of the genitive of the gerund governed by the substantive ; 
e.g. Oppidum magnam ad ducendum bellum dabat facultatem (Cses. 
B. G. I. 38) ; the more usual construction would be ducendi belli. Si 
Cleomenes non tanto ante fugisset, aliqva tamen ad resistendum 
ratio fuisset (Cic. Yerr. V. 34). Ne haec qvidem satis vehemens 
causa ad objurgandum fuit (Ter. Andr. I. 1, 123). 

Obs. 4. The genitive of a substantive and gerundive is sometimes 
subjoined to the verb sum, to denote the purpose which a thing serves 
(or that to which it belongs, somewhat like the genitive, explained in 
§ 282) : Regium imperium initio conservandae libertatis atqve 
augendae reipublicae fuerat (Sail. Cat. 6). Tribuni plebis con- 
cordiam ordinum timent, qvam dissolvendae maxime tribuniciae 
potestatis rentur esse (Liv. V. 3). 

Obs. 5. In a few writers (especially those of a later period), causa 
is sometimes omitted after the genitive of a gerund or a substantive and 
gerundive; e.g. Germanicus in ^Igyptum proficiscitur cognos- 
cendae antiqvitatis (Tac. A. II. 59). Perhaps this idiom has 
originated in a genitive, which was added to a substantive, in order 
to define it ; e.g. Marsi miserunt Romam oratores pacis petendae 
(Liv. IX. 45). 

§ 418. Sometimes the gerund is employed less accurately, so as 
to have the appearance of a passive signification, inasmuch as it 
either (especially in the genitive) merely designates the action of 
the verb in general, and so takes the place of a substantive (e.g. 
movendi for motus), or is referred in idea to some other agent than 
the grammatical subject of the proposition: — 

Multa vera videntur neqve tamen habent insignem et propfiam 
percipiendi notam (Cic. Acad. II. 31), mark of recognition, mark by 
which they can be known. Antonius hostis judicatus, Italia cesse- 
rat ; spes restituendi nulla erat (Corn. Att. 9) = restitutionis or 
fore, ut restitueretur. Jugurtha ad imperandum Tisidium voca- 
batur (Sail. Jug. 62) , that they might give him orders. Annulus in digito 
subtertenuatur habendo (Lucr. I. 313), by our wearing it. (Facilis 
ad intelligendum. See § 412, Obs. 3. Signum recipiendi,/^ re- 
ta^ = se recipiendi, Caes. B. G. VII. 52.) 

§ 419. The poets often use the simple infinitive after substantives 
(with est), adjectives, and (more rarely) verbs, when the prose usage 



376 LATIN GRAMMAR. §420 

would require the gerund either in the genitive, or governed by ad 
or in : — 

Si tanta cupido est bis Stygios innare lacus, bis nigra videre 
Tartara (Virg. iEn. VI. 134) == innandi — videndi. Summa elu- 
dendi occasio est mini nunc senes et Phaedriae curam adimere 
argentariam (Ter. Phorm. V. 6, 3). Pelides cedere nescius (Hor. 
Od. I. 6, 6)=cedendi. Avidus committere pugnam (Ov. Met. 
V. 75). Audax omnia perpeti gens humana (Hor. Od. I. 3, 25) 
= ad omnia perpetienda. Nos numerus sumus et fruges consu- 
mere nati (Id. Ep. I. 2, 27). Fingit eqvum magister ire, viam 
qva monstret eqves (Id. ib. 65). Non mini sunt vires inimicos 
pellere tectis (Ov. Her. I. 109) = ad inimicos pellendos. Durus 
componere versus (Hor. Sat. I. 4, 8) = in versibus componendis. 
(Eqvus, qvem Candida Dido esse sui dederat monumentum et 
pignus amoris, i.q. ut esset, Virg. iEn. V, 572.) 

§ 420. The gerundive (of transitive verbs) denotes something 
that must be done (is to be done) : Vir minime contemnendus 
(virum minime contemnendum, viro minime contemnendo, &c, 
through all the cases) : Vires haud spernendae. Cognoscite aliud 
genus imperatorum, sane diligenter retinendum et conservan- 
dum (Cic. Verr. V. 10). In combination with the verb sum (in 
all the simple tenses of the indicative, subjunctive, and infinitive) 
the gerundive denotes that a certain action is to be done (must be 
done, is proper and necessary). If a definite subject be spoken of, 
to whom the action is a duty (who has to do it), this subject is put 
in the dative (§ 250, h): — 

Ager colendus est, ut fruges ferat. Fortes et magnanimi sunt 
habendi, non qvi faciunt, sed qvi propulsant injuriam (Cic. Off. I. 
19) . Tria videnda sunt oratori, qvid dicat et qvo qvidqve loco 
et qvomodo (Cic. Or. 14). Credo rem aliter instituendam (sc. 
esse). Provideo multas mini molestias exhauriendas fore (that 
I shall have to endure). Qvaero, si hostis supervenisset, qvid mini 
faciendum fuerit (corresponding to faciendum fuit, in the indicative ; 
§348,c). 

Obs. After a negation, and particularly after vix, the gerund or 
gerundive sometimes takes the modified signification of that which may 
be done: Vix ferendus dolor (Cic. Finn. IV. 19). Vix credendum 
erat (Caes. B. G. V. 28) , it was hardly credible (impersonally. See § 421.) 
In the poets and later writers, videndus is sometimes found even with- 
out a negation, signifying visible (to be seen), and the like. 



§ 422 OF THE SUPINE, GERUND, AND GERUNDIVE. 377 

§ 421. a. From intransitive verbs (which otherwise have no 
gerundive) the neuter of the gerundive is used with est (sit, esse, 
&c.) as an impersonal phrase (like venitur, ventum est ; § 218, c, 
compare § 97), to signify that the action must be done. The sub- 
ject which has to do something is expressed by the dative, as with 
the ordinary gerundive and the impersonal phrase governs the same 
case as the verb (dative, ablative, or genitive) : — 

Nunc est bibendum. Froficiscendum mini erat illo ipso die. 
Obtemperandum est legibus. Utendum erit viribus. Obliviscen- 
dum tibi injuriarum esse censeo. 

Obs. 1. If the verb governs the dative, two datives may come to- 
gether; e.g. Aliqvando isti principes et sibi et ceteris populi 
Romani universi auctoritati parendum esse fateantur (Cic. pro Leg. 
Man. 22) . But this is rather avoided. Instead of the dative of the agent, 
the ablative with ab is used in a very few instances ; e.g. Aguntur 
bona multorum civium, qvibus est a vobis consulendum (Id. 
ib. 2). 

Obs. 2. The verbs utor, fruor, fungor, potior, have the proper 
gerundive, although they govern the ablative ; e.g. Rei utendae causa. 
Non paranda solum sapientia sed fruenda etiam est (Cic. Finn. I. 
1) ; but, in this construction with the verb sum, the impersonal form is 
more usual (utendum est viribus). 1 

b* The earliest writers sometimes form such an impersonal phrase from 
transitive verbs, and let an accusative follow; e.g. Mini hac nocte 
agitandum est vigilias (Plaut. Trin. IV. 2, 27), instead of mihi hac 
nocte agitandae sunt vigiliae. Aeternas poenas in morte tenen- 
dum est (Lucr. I. 112). In good prose-writers, this is very unusual. 

§ 422. The gerundive is subjoined to the object, or in the passive, 
to the subject of certain verbs, which signify to give, to transfer, to 
make over, to take, to obtain (do, mando, trado, impono, relinqvo, 
propono, accipio, suscipio, &c.),in order to specify it as the design 
and purpose of the action, that something should be done to the 
object or subject (to give a person a thing to keep, i.q. that it may 
be kept) : — 

Antigonus Eumenem mortuum propinqvis sepeliendum tra- 
didit (Corn. Eum. 13). Demus nos philosophiae excolendos (Cic. 
Tusc. IV. 38). Laudem gloriamqve P. Africani tuendam con- 
servandamqve suscepi (Id. Verr. IV. 38). Loco (conduco) opus 
faciendum, vectigal fruendum, to let (contract for) the execution of a 

1 Gloriandus (Cic. Tusc. v. 17); oblivlscendus (Hor.). 



378 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 424 

work, to farm the revenue, Eqvorum qvattuor millia domanda 
eqvitibus divisa sunt (Liv. XXIY. 20) . So also with the verb euro, 
to have a thing done : Caesar pontem in Arari faciendum curat (Cses. 
B. G. I. 13). Conon muros Athenarum reficiendos curavit (Corn. 
Con. 4), had the walls of Athens rebuilt. (Edicendum euro, ut, I have 
it proclaimed, that.) 

Obs. 1. The poets here use the present infinitive active (as is often 
the case in English) ; e.g. Tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in 
mare Creticum portare ventis (Hor. Od. I. 26, 1). In prose, we 
find Do (ministro) alicui bibere, give one to drink (without an accusa- 
tive) . Jussit ei bibere dare. 

Obs. 2. We sometimes find such expressions as deligere, proponere 
sibi aliqvos ad imitandum (Cic. de Or. III. 31, instead of imitan- 
dos), the verb being taken in its absolute sense. 

Obs. 3. Though it is allowable to say habeo aedem tuendam, the 
keeping up of the temple is intrusted to me, yet habeo statuendum, 
dicendum, &c, I have to decide, must decide (for statuendum mini 
est), is a later idiom. (We must also notice habeo with the infinitive 
of dico, and of similar verbs ; as, scribo, polliceor, in the signification 
I can: Haec fere dicere habui de natura deorum (Cic. N. D. III. 
39), that is what 1 had to say, could say. De republica nihil habui 
ad te scribere, Id. ad Att. II. 22). 



CHAPTER VIII. 

OF THE PARTICIPLES. 

§ 423. A Participle, after the manner of an adjective, but with 
the distinctions of time, present, past, and future, describes a person 
or thing as doing or suffering something, or as being in a certain 
state. The active participles, which represent the person or thing 
as acting, govern the case of their verb ; and all participles may 
themselves be qualified by subordinate propositions or otherwise, 
just as the verb of an independent proposition may be qualified by 
words or clauses introduced into the predicate : — 

Venit Gajus ad me qverens valde miserabiliter de injuria sibi 
a fratre suo illata. 

§ 424. a. The present and perfect participles are used instead of 
a relative clause, like an adjective, to qualify a substantive. In such 



§ 424 OF THE PAETICIPLES. 379 

a case the participle does not bring forward any circumstance bear- 
ing on the main proposition (see § 425) : carbo ardens ; legati a 
rege missi. Ordo est recta qvaedam collocatio, prioribus se- 
qventia annectens (Qvintil. VII. 1,1). A participle may likewise 
be used substantively in place of a relative clause ; dormiens = is, 
qvi dormit. But this is done only where no ambiguity can result 
from it, where there is nothing to lead to the supposition that the 
participle bears on the main proposition as in § 425, most of the 
cases being in the plural, and very few in the nominative or accu- 
sative singular (compare § 301, a). A further definition (by cases, 
adverbs, prepositions, &c.) is not often subjoined to a participle that 
stands substantively, in any case only a very short and perspicuous 
one: — 

Jacet corpus dormientis ut mortui (Cic. Div. I. 30). Nihil 
difficile amanti puto (Id. Or. 10) . Uno et eodem temporis puncto 
nati (persons who are born) dissimiles et naturas et vitas habent 
(Id. Div. II. 45). Romulus vetere consilio condentium urbes 
asylum aperit (Liv. I. 8) = eorum, qvi urbes condunt or condide- 
runt. Male parta male dilabuntur (Cic. Phil. II. 27). Clodius 
omnium ordinum consensu pro reipublicae salute gesta resciderat 
(Id. pro Mil. 32) = ea, qvae omnium — gesta erant. Imperaturus 
omnibus eligi debet ex omnibus (Plin. Paneg. 7). 

b. The participle present and perfect are often used to express 
not only or chiefly, that the substantive is now doing something or 
that something has been done to it before, but a certain quality and 
a certain state in general, so that the participle acquires precisely 
the nature of an adjective ; e.g. domus ornata, vir bene de repub- 
lica meritus. Animalia alia rationis expertia sunt, alia ratione 
utentia (Cic. Off. II. 3), rational Consequently many participles 
admit of degrees of comparison (see § 62), and in this case the 
present participle of transitive verbs generally has the genitive in- 
stead of the accusative (§ 289, a). 

Obs. The future participle cannot be used with the simple force of an 
adjective, except in the particular instance when a relation of time is 
conceived of as a general property of a thing; as, futvLras, future, anni 
venturi. 

c. The participle perfect of many verbs has assumed in the neuter 
gender precisely the signification of a substantive, and is treated as 
such ; e.g. peccatum, pactum, votum. Some participles, particu- 



380 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 425 

larly dictum, factum, and responsum, are used in a substantive 
signification, sometimes precisely as substantive (praeclarum fac- 
tum, fortia facta, ex alterius improbo facto), and sometimes as 
participles combined with adverbs ; e.g. recte facta, facete dictum, 
alterius bene inventis obtemperare (Cic. pro Cluent. 31), espe- 
cially if there is also an adjective or possessive pronoun : — 

Multa Catonis et in senatu et in foro vel provisa prudenter 
vel acta constanter vel responsa acute ferebantur (Cic. Lsel. 2) . 

§ 425. By means of the participles the description of a contem- 
porary, past, or future action, connected with the main action, is 
added appositively to a substantive (or equivalent word) of the 
leading proposition ; the participles thus serving not only to fix the 
relative time of the main action, but also its manner and circum- 
stances, such as the motive, occasion, contrast, condition (design). 
Such relations and circumstances are often expressed in English by 
subordinate propositions with conjunctions (while, during, if, after, 
since, because, although), or by phrases with prepositions. The 
participles are therefore well adapted to impart smoothness and 
brevity to the style, especially as they may be annexed not only to 
the subject of the leading proposition (which is most usual), but 
also to the object, either direct or remote, or to a genitive : — 

Aer effluens hue et illuc ventos efficit (Cic. N". D. II. 39). 
Omne malum nascens facile opprimitur ; inveteratum fit plerum- 
qve robustius (Id. Phil. V. 11), at its birth, — when it has grown older, 
M.' Curio ad focum sedenti Samnites magnum auri pondus attule- 
runt (Id. Cat. M. 16). Valet apud nos clarorum hominum me- 
moria etiam mortuorum (Id. pro Sest. 9). Valerium hostes 
acerrime pugnantem occidunt (while fighting) . Miserum est nihil 
proficientem angi (Cic. N. D. III. 6) , without doing any good. Diony- 
sius tyrannus cultros metuens tonsorios candenti carbone sibi 
adurebat capillum (Id. Off. II. 7), for fear of. Risus saepe ita re- 
pente erumpit, ut eum cupientes tenere neqveamus (Id. de Or. II. 
38) , although we wish it. Dionysius tyrannus Syracusis expulsus 
Corinthi pueros docebat (Id. Tusc. III. 12), after he had been ex- 
pelled, after his expulsion. Claudius audendum aliqvid impro visum 
rebatur, qvod coeptum non minorem apud cives qvam hostes 
terrorem faceret, perpetratum in magnam laetitiam ex magno 
metu verteret (Liv. XXVII. 43). Romani non rogati Graecis 
ultro adversus Nabin auxilium offerunt (Id. XXXIV. 23). Qvis 
hoc non intelligit, Verrem absolutum tamen ex manibus populi 



§ 425 OF THE PARTICIPLES. 381 

Romani eripi nullo modo posse ? (Cic. Verr. I. 4), even if lie should 
be acquitted. Magna pars hominum est, qvae navigatura de tem- 
pestate non cogitat (Sen. de Tranq. An. 11), when they are to 
sail. 1 

Obs. 1. It should here be observed, that in Latin the past time has 
no active participle (except in deponents and half-deponents, and the few 
verbs given in § 110, Obs. 3), and that the present and future have no 
passive participle. 

Obs. 2. Two actions which are contemporaneous or following in close 
succession, one of which, as a circumstance accompanying the other, is 
expressed in Latin by the participle, are often connected in English by 
and : Caesar celeriter aggressus Pompejanos ex vallo deturbavit 
(Cses. B. C. III. 67). T. Manlius Torqvatus Galium, cum qvo 
provocatus manum conseruit, in conspectu duorum exercituum 
caesum torqve spoliavit (Liv. VI. 42) = cecidit et spoliavit. 
Patrimonium Sex. Roscii domestici praedones vi ereptum possi- 
dent (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 6). (We should notice also the repetition of 
the preceding verb in the participle : Romani qvum urbem vi cepis- 
sent captamqve diripuissent, Carthaginem petunt, Liv. XXII. 
20, when they had conquered the town, and then plundered it. Romulus 
Caeninensium exercitum fundit fugatqve; fusum perseqvitur; 
Id. I. 10). 

Obs. 3. A relative or interrogative proposition may also be ex- 
pressed in a participial form ; a participle which governs a relative or 
interrogative pronoun, or is denned by it, being added to the subject 
or object of a proposition (but rarely to another word) : Insidebat in 
mente Phidiae species pulchritudinis eximia qvaedam, qvam 
intuens ad illius similitudinem artem et manum dirigebat (Cic. Or. 
2), looking to which he , i.q. to which he looked and . Cogi- 
tate, qvantis laboribus fundatum imperium, qvanta virtute stabili- 
tam libertatem una nox paene delerit (Id. Cat. IV. 9) . 

Obs. 4. Instead of a complete subordinate proposition, a participle 
is sometimes connected by the particle nisi, when a negation pre- 
cedes, in order to express an exception or negative condition : Non 
mehercule mini nisi admonito venisset in mentem (Cic. de Or. 
II. 42) = nisi admonitus essem. In the same way, a participle is 
sometimes connected (but, in general, only in the later writers, from the 
time of Livy) by qvanqvam, qvamvis, qvasi, tanqvam, velut, or 
non ante (prius) qvam, to denote a contrast or comparison, or to fix 



1 Est apud Platonem Socrates, qvum esset in custodia publica, dicens 
Critoni suo familiari, sibi post tertium diem esse moriendum (Cic. de Div. I. 
25), Socrates is introduced in Plato, we read in Plato of Socrates, as saying to his friend Crito. 
(Dicens denoting the manner, not est dicens for dicit.) 



382 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 426 

the time of the action, which is otherwise expressed by a subordinate 
proposition, introduced for the purpose : Caesarem milites, qvamvis 
recusantem, ultro in Africam sunt secuti (Svet. Jul. 70). Sagun- 
tini nullum ante finem pugnae qvam morientes fecerunt (Liv. 
XXI. 14) = qvam mortui sunt. Rubos fessi pervenimus utpote 
longum carpentes iter (Hor. Sat. I. 5, 94) = utpote qvi carperemus, 
§ 396, Obs. 2. (On the other hand, the combination of a participle with the 
preposition sine, in phrases like the following, — " without a correspond- 
ing benefit," — is not admissible in Latin. On the proper mode of ex- 
pressing this, see § 416, Obs. 3.) 

Obs. 5. The participle future commonly stands in the older writers 
(Cicero, Csesar, Sallust), only in combination with the verb sum, to 
express certain relations of time connected with the action (futurus 
also as a pure adjective). In the later writers, it serves, like the other 
participles, to denote circumstances and relations, sometimes in the sig- 
nification if or when, sometimes (more frequently) to signify a design, 
or a prospect of something : Perseus, unde profectus erat, rediit, belli 
casum de integro tentaturus (Liv. XLII. 62). Horatius Codes 
ausus est rem plus famae habituram ad posteros qvam fidei (Id. 
II. 10) . Hostes carpere multifariam vires Romanas, ut non suf- 
fecturas ad omnia aggressi sunt (Liv. III. 5) , thinking that they would 

not . Neqve illis judicium aut Veritas (erat), qvippe eodem 

die diversa pari certamine postulaturis (Tac. H. I. 32) . It is also 
employed by the same writers as a concise mode of expressing a whole 
conditional proposition, which should have been subjoined to the preced- 
ing : Martialis dedit mini qvantum potuit, daturus amplius, si 
potuisset (Plin. Ep. III. 21) == et dedisset amplius. 

§ 426. Sometimes a substantive is used with the perfect participle 
in such a way, that we have to think not so much of the person or 
thing itself in its specified circumstances, as of the action performed 
on the subject considered in itself substantively ; e.g. : — 

Rex interfectus, the {perpetrated) murder of the king. (Like the 
gerundive, especially in the genitive, with this difference, that the gerundive 
does not designate the action as completed.) L. Tarqvinius missum 
se dicebat, qvi Catilinae nuntiaret, ne eum Lentulus et Cethegus 
deprehensi terrerent (Sail. Cat. 48), that the arrest of L. and C. 
should not alarm him. Pudor non lati auxilii patres cepit (Liv. 
XXI. 16). Sibi qvisqve caesi regis expetebat decus (Curt. IV. 
58). Regnatum est Romae ab condita urbe ad liberatam annos 
ducentos qvadraginta qvattuor (Liv. I. SO}, from the foundation of 
the city to its liberation. Ante Capitolium incejisum (Td. VI. 4). 
Major ex civibus amissis dolor qvam laetitia fusis hostibus fuit 



§428 OF THE PARTICIPLES. 383 

(Liv. IY. 17), at the loss of citizens. Tiberius militem ob surreptum 
e viridario pavonem capite puniit (Svet. Tib. 60). (This form 
is particularly employed, in order to obtain a concise mode of expres- 
sion, when the corresponding verbal substantive is not in use ; e.g. from 
condere, interficere, nasci.) 

Obs. 1. Livy uses, in this way, even the participle of an intransitive 
verb standing by itself in the neuter with an impersonal signification : 
Tarqvinius Superbus bellica arte aeqvasset superiores reges, nisi 
degeneratum in aliis huic qvoqve laudi offecisset (Liv. I. 53), the 
circumstance that he had degenerated in other respects, his other degener- 
acy} 

Obs. 2. Concerning the participle perfect in the ablative with opus 
est, see § 266, Obs. 

§ 427. Habeo in combination with a participle passive perfect of 
verbs of insight or determination (the participle being either used 
appositively with the object of the verb, or standing alone in the 
neuter) forms a kind of periphrastic perfect active, which at the 
same time indicates the present condition ; habeo aliqyid perspec- 
tum having not merely the force of perspexi, but signifying, that I 
now have this insight into a thing, and that it stands before me 
clearly investigated : — 

Si Curium nondum satis habes cognitum, valde tLbi eum com- 
mendo (Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 7). Tu si habes jam statutum, qvid 
tibi agendum putes, supersedeto hoc labore itineris (Id. ad Fam. 
IV. 2). Verres deorum templis bellum semper habuit indictum 

(Id. Yerr. Y. 72), was always at open icar with the temples. 

Obs. The periphrasis factum (rem factam) dabo for faciam is 
archaic. 

§ 428. A participle combined with a subject and put in the abla- 
tive is annexed to another proposition in the way described in § 277 
as an ablative absolute, to show that the main action takes place at 
the same time with the action expressed in the participle (present), 
or after it (perfect), or while it is to take place (future), and by 
these means to indicate the time of the main action, the occasion of 
it, the way in which it is performed, a contrast, a condition, &c. 
The participle in the ablative absolute may be limited and qualified 
by cases, propositions, and adverbs, just as the proposition for 

1 Uotum, furens qvid femina possit (Virg. Mn. V. 6), the knowledge what — . 
Sometimes an adjective ti used instead of a participle : vix una SOSpes navis ab hosti- 
bus (Hor. Od. I. 37, 13). 



384 LATIN GRAMMAR. §428 

which this ablative is substituted might have been qualified by the 
same : — 

Homerus fuit et Hesiodus ante Romam conditam, Archilochus 
regnante Romulo (Cic. Tusc. I. 1). Qvaeritur, utrum mundus (the 
firmament) terra stante circumeat, an mundo stante terra vertatur 
(Sen. Q. N. VII. 2). Perditis rebus omnibus, tamen ipsa virtus 
se sustentare potest (Cic. adFam. VI. 1). Caesar homines inimico 
animo, data facultate per provinciam itineris faciendi, non tem- 
peraturos ab injuria existimab at (Cses. B. G. I. 7), if (in case that) 

the permission should be given them . Parumper silentium et 

qvies fuit, nee Etruscis, nisi cogerentur, pugnam inituris et dicta- 
tore arcem Romanam respectante (Liv. IV. 18). 

Obs. 1. Ablatives absolute are not commonly used, when the person 
or thing which should form their subject occurs in the main proposition 
as the subject, object, or remote object ; for, in that case, the participle 
is introduced in agreement with that subject or object : Manlius caesum 
Galium torqve spoliavit, not Manlius, caeso Gallo, eum torqve 
spoliavit; still less, Manlius Galium, caeso eo, t. sp. Hosti ce- 
denti instandum est (not, hoste cedente, ei instandum est). Some- 
times, however, ablatives absolute are found in such cases, in order to 
draw a more marked distinction between the contents of the participial 
and those of the leading proposition, and to indicate more prominently 
the order of events or the relation they bear to each other : Vercinget- 
orix, convocatis suis clientibus facile incendit (sc. eos) (Caes. B. 
G. VII. 4) . Nemo erit, qvi credat, te invito, provinciam tibi esse 
decretam (Cic. Phil. XI. 10)= tibi invito provinciam e. d. (Se 
judice nemo nocens absolvitur, Juv. XIII. 3, before his own judg- 
ment-seat.) For the same reason the ablative absolute is generally made 
use of, where the subject of the participle stands in the genitive in the 
leading proposition : M. Porcius Cato vivo qvoqve' Scipione alla- 
trare ejus magnitudinem solitus erat (Liv. XXXVIII. 54). 
Jugurtha fratre meo interfecto regnum ejus sceleris sui praedam 
fecit (Sail. Jug. 14). 

Obs. 2. Ablatives absolute, like a simple participle (see § 424, Obs. 
4) may sometimes be subjoined with nisi, when a negation precedes, to 
point out an exception : Nihil praecepta atqve artes valent nisi adju- 
vante natura (Qvinct. Prooem. § 26)= nisi qvum adjuvat natura. 
Regina apum non procedit foras nisi migraturo agmine (Plin. H. 
N. XI. 17) = nisi qvum agmen migraturum est. So likewise ablatives 
absolute may be connected with the sentence in which they stand by 
qvanqvam, qvamvis or qvasi, tanqvam, velut, or non ante (prius) 
qvam : Caesar, qvanqvam obsidione Massiliae summaqve frumen- 
tariae rei penuria retardante, brevi tamen omnia subegit (Svet. Jul. 



§ 428 



OF THE PARTICIPLES. 385 



34) . Albani, velut diis qvoqve simul cum patria relictis, sacra ob- 
livioni dederant (Liv. I. 31) = velut si deos . . . reliquissent. But 
this construction rarely occurs in the earlier writers, with whom indeed 
it is almost entirely confined to quasi : Verres, qvasi praeda sibi ad- 
vecta, non, praedonibus captis, si qui senes ac deformes erant, 
eos in hostium numero ducit (Cic. Verr. V. 25) . 

Obs. 3. Ablatives absolute of the participle future are rare, and not 
met with in the older writers. (Compare § 425, Obs. 5.) 

Obs. 4. Ablatives absolute in the passive, with a leading proposition 
in the active, usually denote an action proceeding from the subject of the 
leading proposition, unless the name of an agent with ab is added to the 
passive participle ; e.g. Cognito Caesaris adventu, Ariovistus legatos 
ad eum mittit. In this case the leading subject sometimes stands 
between the two ablatives : e.g. His Caesar cognitis milites aggerem 
comportare jubet (Cses. B. C. III. 62). (C. Sempronius causa 
ipse pro se dicta damnatur, Liv. IV. 4:4, ; i.q. qvum ipse causam pro 
se dixisset.) Sometimes the ablatives absolute express something that 
has happened with reference to the leading subject : Hannibal, spe po- 
tiundae Nolae adempta, Acerras recessit (Liv. XXIII. 17) . Aedui 
Caesarem certiorem faciunt, sese, depopulatis agris, non facile ab 
oppidis vim hostium prohibere (Caes. B. G. I. 11, after their fields 
had been already plundered) . 

Obs. 5. To the participle in the ablative absolute it is not usual to add 
other ablatives, which might lead to a sacrifice of euphony or perspicuity ; 
indeed, long and complicated propositions in general are not often ex- 
pressed in this way. Another participle is rarely added as an adjective 
in the ablative absolute ; e.g. Defosso cadavere domi apud T. Ses- 
tium invento, C. Julius Sestio diem dixit (Liv. III. 33). Writers 
generally endeavor to avoid such a concurrence of two participles. 
(Euniene pacatiore invento, Liv. XXXVII. 45. See § 227, Obs. 
4.) 1 

Obs. 6. Occasionally turn (turn vero, turn deniqve) follows the 
ablative absolute, in order emphatically to indicate that its action is ante- 
cedent to the act expressed by the leading verb, and is its basis or con- 
dition : Hoc constituto, turn licebit otiose ista qvaerere (Cic. Finn. 
IV. 13). Sed confecto proelio, turn vero cerneres, qvanta aiiimi 
vis fuisset in exercitu Catilinae (Sail. Cat. 61). 

Obs. 7. The ablative absolute can also take a relative or interroga- 
tive form, the subject in it being a relative, or the question of a sentence 
applying only to some accompanying circumstance : Id habes a natura 
ingenium, qvo exculto summa omnia facile asseqvi possis (by the 

1 The following complicated construction occurs in Liv. I. 46 : conciliata plebis VO- 
luntate agro cap to ex hostibus viritim diviso. 



386 LATIN GRAMMAR. §430 

cultivation of which). Qva freqventia omnium generum prose- 
qvente creditis nos Capua profectos ? (Liv. VII. 30) . Qvaerunt, 
qvo admonente hoc mihi in mentem venerit. 

§ 429. Sometimes the ablative of a participle perfect stands alone im- 
personally in the same way as the ablative of a substantive and participle in 
combination, followed by a dependent proposition (accusative with the 
infinitive, interrogative proposition, or ut). (So in particular audito, 
cognito, comperto, intellecto, nuntiato, edicto, permisso, and some- 
times a few others.) Alexander, audito, Darium movisse ab Ecba- 
tanis (had set out from Ecb at ana), fugientem inseqvi pergit (Curt. V. 
35). Consul, statione eqvitum ad portam posita, edictoqve, ut, 
qvicunqve ad vallum tenderet, pro hoste haberetur, fugientibus 
obstitit (Liv. X. 38). l 

Obs. 1. Sometimes a participle stands alone without anything depend- 
ing on it : Tribuni militum, non loco castris ante capto, non prae- 
munito vallo, nee auspicato, nee litato, instruunt aciem (Liv. V. 
38). (Compare the adverbs auspicato, consulto, &c. § 198, a> Obs. 2.) 

Obs. 2. In the ablative absolute the subject may be left out and 
understood, if it is an indefinite or demonstrative pronoun, which has a 
relative corresponding to it : Additur dolus, missis, qvi magnam vim 
lignorum ardentem in flumen conjicerent (Liv. I. 37) . (Caralitani, 
simul ad se Valerium mitti audierunt, nondum profecto ex Italia, 
sua sponte ex oppido Cottam ejiciunt, Caes. B. C. I. 30, where eo 
has to be supplied from the context.) 

§ 430. As the methods of indicating that a second act introduced 
into a sentence is only a qualification of the main proposition are 
various (by a subordinate proposition with a conjunction, by a par- 
ticiple in agreement with some word in the proposition, and by the 
ablative absolute), it is usual, when a long series of circumstances 
is to be given, to vary the syntax, the participial constructions 
being either subjoined to the subordinate proposition (the protasis) 
to explain and define it, or entering into the leading proposition : — 

Consul, nuntio circumventi fratris conversus ad pugnam, dum 
se temere magis qvam caute in mediam dimicationem infert, 
vulnere accepto, aegre ab circumstantibus ereptus, et suorum 
animos turbavit et ferociores hostes fecit (Liv. III. 5). Yet a 
series of ablatives absolute is occasionally employed to express circum- 
stances which follow in succession (e.g. Caes. B. G. III. 1). This 

1 Incerto is found as an equivalent expression for qvum incertum esset in Livy 
XivlII. 36. 



§431 OF THE PARTICIPLES. 387 

depends on the greater or less care which the writer has for variety and 
precision of expression. 

§ 431. a. The participle denotes the time with reference to the 
leading verb of the proposition, so that, if this be in the preterite, 
the participle present has the signification of the imperfect (prae- 
sens in praeterito), the participle perfect that of the pluperfect 
(praeteritum in praeterito), and the participle future that of the 
futurum in praeterito, and this must also be borne in mind in speci- 
fying time in subordinate propositions depending on a participle. 
(Haec omnia Titius pridem mutavit me probante, signifies, there- 
fore, with my approbation at the time, not which I now approve?) 

b. The participle perfect of deponents or half-deponents is not 
unfrequently joined to the subject instead of the participle pres- 
ent (imperfect) to indicate the motive, occasion, or manner of the 
main action (since) : — 

Fatebor me in adolescentia, diffisum ingenio meo, qvaesisse ad- 
jumenta doctrinae (Cic. pro Mur. 30). Caesar, iisdem ducibus 
usus, qvi nuntii venerant, Numidas et Cretas sagittarios subsidio 
oppidanis mittit (Cass. B. G. II. 7). Ego copia et facilitate causae 
confisus, vide, qvo progrediar (Cic. pro Rose. Com. 1). Yet this 
occurs chiefly in the historical style, where the leading proposition is in 
the perfect or historical present, or in those cases where the present par- 
ticiple is not in use (ratus, solitus). 

Obs. 1. With these exceptions there are but few instances of the 
participle perfect inaccurately used attributively with the force of a 
present : Melior tutiorqve est certa pax qvam sperata victoria 
(Liv. XXX. 30) = qvae speratur. So called is never expressed in Latin 
by ita dictus, but by qvi dicitur, qvi vocatur, qvem vocant. 

Obs. 2. In some writers (Livy and those of a later period) we occa- 
sionally find ablatives absolute formed with the participle perfect to ex- 
press a circumstance which does not precede, but accompanies or follows 
the main action : Volsci inermes oppressi dederunt poenas, vix 

nuntiis caedis relictis (Liv. IV . 10) , so that scarcely . Hannibal 

totis viribus aggressus urbem momento cepit, signo dato, ut omnes 
puberes interficerent (Id. XXI. 14). Suetonius Faullinus biennio 
prosperas res habuit, subactis nationibus firmatisqve praesidiis 
(Tac. Agric. 14), while he subdued nations. 



388 LATIN GRAMMAR. §433 



CHAPTER IX. 

COMBINATION OF COORDINATE AND SUBORDINATE PROPOSITIONS, 
AND THE USE OF THE CONJUNCTIONS FOR THIS PURPOSE. 
THE INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 

§ 432. The Coordination of Propositions (§ 328) is denoted by 
copulative, disjunctive, and adversative conjunctions. 

§ 433. The Copulative Conjunctions are et, qve (which is 
affixed to the end of a word), ac (atqve), and (combined with a 
negation) nee, neqve, and not Et simply connects two coordinate 
words or propositions, without any additional signification whatever ; 
while qve rather marks the second member as a supplement to the 
first, and as a continuation or enlargement of it ; e.g. : — 

Solis et lunae reliqvorumqve siderum ortus ; de ilia civitate to- 
taqve provincia. Pro salute hujus imperii et pro vita civium 
proqve universa republica (Cic. pro Arch. 11). Prima seqventem 
honestum est in secundis tertiisqve consistere. Tu omnium 
divinarum humanarumqve rerum nomina, genera, causas aperuisti, 
plurimumqve poetis nostris, omninoqve Latinis et litteris luminis 
et verbis attulisti (Cic. Acad. I, 3). Mihi vero nihil unqvam 
populare placuit, eamqve optimam rempublicam esse duco, qvam 
hie consul constituit (Id. Legg. III. 17). 1 It is therefore often em- 
ployed to connect two notions which are to be considered as a connected 
whole (senatus populusqve Romanus, but Caesare et Bibulo con- 
sulibus, of the two consuls considered as equal), or with two words, 
which express only one leading idea (jus potestatemqve habere). (In 
many cases no distinction is made : noctes et dies, noctes diesqve. 
Rerum divinarum et humanarum scientia, Cic. Off. I. 43 ; omnium 
divinarum humanarumqve rerum consensio, Id. Lael. 6). Ac 
(which only stands before consonants) or atqve (before consonants and 
(vowels) puts forward the second member somewhat more forcibly in 
comparison with the first as distinct from it and equally important (omnia 
honesta atqve inhonesta, the unbecoming no less than the becoming : 
omnium rerum, divinarum atqve humanarum, vim, naturam, cau- 
sasqve nosse, Cic. de Or. I. 49) . Yet this accessory signification is often 
not to be recognized, especially with the shorter form ac, which is used 



1 Examples of a series of such additions and continuations may be seen in Cicero, Legg. I. 
L and Phil. IX. 7. 



§ 434 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 389 

for variety with et, if one of the two connected members is again sub- 
divided : Magnifica vox et magno viro ac sapiente digna (Cic. Off. 
HI. 1). Concerning neqve, see § 458. 

Obs. 1. Et is sometimes employed as an adverb for etiam, also ; but 
in the earlier writers, it, for the most part, occurs only in certain com- 
binations ; e.g. simul et, et nunc (sed et), &c. 

Obs. 2. If a negative proposition is followed by an affirmative, in 
which the same thought is expressed or continued, qve, et, or ac, is 
employed in Latin, where in English we use but : Socrates nee patro- 
num qvaesivit ad judicium capitis nee judicibus supplex fuit, 
adhibuitqve liberam contumaciam, a magnitudine animi ductam 
(Cic. Tusc. I. 29) . Tamen animo non deficiam, et id, qvod sus- 
cepi, qvoad potero, perferam (Id. pro Rose. Am. 4) . Nostrorum 
militum impetum hostes ferre non potuerunt ac terga verterunt 
(Cses. B. G. IV. 35). 

§ 434. The omission of the copulative conjunctions (Asyndeton) 1 
occurs in Latin in quick and animated discourse, not only where 
there are three or more members, but even with two : — 

Aderant amici, propinqvi (Cic. Verr. I. 48) . Adsunt, qveruntur 
Siculi universi (Id. Div. in Csec. IV.). So occasionally, in speaking 
of colleagues in office : Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus ; in ex- 
amples : In feris inesse fortitudinem saepe dicimus, ut in eqvis. in 
leonibus (Id. Off. I. 16) ; in contrasts, which embrace a whole class of 
subjects : prima, postrema ; fanda, nefanda ; aedificia omnia, pub- 
lico, privata ; ultro, citro ; and in certain expressions of judicial official 
language, when two words are put together for greater accuracy: qvic- 
qvid dare facere oportet : aeqvum bonum, right and justice. Qvi 
damnatus est, erit, he who has been or shall be condemned. 

Obs. 1. In an enumeration of three or more perfectly coordinate 
words, we may either connect each of them with the preceding by a 
conjunction, if we wish to give a certain prominence to each (Polysynde- 
ton), 2 or omit the conjunction entirely : summa fide, cons tan tia, justi- 
tia ; monebo, praedicam, denuntiabo, testabor ; 3 or omit it between 
the first members, and annex qve to the last : summa fide, constantia, 
justitiaqve (but we must avoid, in this case, using et, ac, or atqve, 
unless with a desire to mark the last member as distinct from the rest) . 
So also alii, ceteri, reliqvi, stand at the end of an enumeration with- 
out a conjunction (honores, divitiae, cetera) or with qve, rarely with 

i aavvderog, unconnected. 

2 TZOAvGVvdeTog, connected in many ways. 

3 As in the above example, four words thus united without conjunctions are often made up 
of two pair of words which are either nearly connected or mutually contrasted. 



390 LATIN GRAMMAR. §435 

et ; and we always find postremo, deniqve, not et postremo, et deni- 
qve. (Sibi liberisqve et genti Numidarum, where the two first ideas 
are more nearly connected.) 

Obs. 2. The place of a copulative conjunction may be supplied, in 
animated discourse, by repeating, in each member of the sentence, a 
word common to all (Anaphora) : Si recte Cato judicavit, non recte 
frumentarius ille, non recte aedium pestilentium venditor tacuit 
(Cic. Off. III. 16) . Nos deorum immortalium templa, nos muros, 
nos domicilia sedesqve populi Romani, aras, focos, sepulcra majo- 
rum defendimus (Id. Phil. VIII. 3). Another conjunction may be 
repeated in the same way : Si loca, si fana, si campum, si canes, si 
eqvos consvetudine adamare solemus, qvantum id in hominum 
consvetudine facilius fieri poterit? (Cic. Finn. I. 20). Nee tamen 
omnes possunt esse Scipiones aut Maximi, ut urbium expugna- 
tiones, ut pedestres navalesqve pugnas, ut bella a se gesta, ut 
triumphos recordentur (Id. Cat. M. 5) . Promisit, sed difficulter, 
sed subductis superciliis, sed malignis verbis (Sen. de Benef. 1. 1). 

Obs. 3. We cannot, in Latin, subjoin an illative adverb (itaqve, igi- 
tur, ergo) to a copulative particle (as in English, and therefore, and 
consequently) ; we must therefore say propterqve earn causam, and 
ike like. 

§ 435. a. Both members of a combination are rendered promi- 
nent by et — et, both — and, for which qve — et and qve — qve 
are occasionally employed in some writers. 

Obs. 1. Qve — et connect only single words, not propositions: e.g. 
Legatiqve et tribuni (Liv. XXIX. 22), seqve et ducem (and that not 
in all writers, e.g. in Cicero) ; qve — qve (also not found in all writers) 
are used with a double relative proposition : Qviqve Rornae qviqve in 
exercitu erant (Liv. XXII. 26) = et qvi — et qvi ; but otherwise, they 
rarely occur in prose, and only to connect single words, the first of which 
is a pronoun: Meqve regnumqve meum (Sail. Jug. 10). Et — qve 
are only found as a loose way of connecting two propositions : Qvis 
est, qvin intelligat, et eos, qvi haec fecerint, dignitatis splendore 
ductos immemores fuisse utilitatum suarum, nosqve, qvum ea 
laudemus, nulla alia re nisi honestate duci? (Cic. Finn. V. 22). 

Obs, 2. Concerning neqve — et, et — neqve, see § 468, c. 

Obs. 3. Qvum — turn, both — and (concerning the mood, when 
qvum forms a subordinate proposition, see § 358, Obs. 3). Turn — 
turn always signifies at one time, at another time, as also modo — modo, 
nunc — nunc, more rarely in prose jam — jam. (With these, and simi- 
lar partitive phrases, a copulative particle is never used.) Less usual 
expressions are qva — qva (of two single words) : e.g. qva consules, 



§436 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 391 

qva exercitum hostes increpabant ; and simul — simul, which last 
approaches, in signification, to partim — partim: e.g. increpare simul 
tumultum, simul ignaviam militum. 

Obs. 4. It may here be observed, that when a general description is 
followed by something more special, no such particle as the English 
namely is used in Latin : Veteres philosophi in qvattuor virtutes 
omnem honestatem dividebant, prudentiam, justitiam, fortitudi- 
nem, modestiam {namely, prudence, justice, &c). If an explanation 
is added in a new proposition, nam and enim are made use of; e.g. 
tres enim sunt causae, there are namely three causes. The word 
nempe signifies surely (is it not so?), and expresses our conviction 
that what we say will not be denied. 

§ 436. The Disjunctive Conjunctions are aut, vel (ve, at- 
tached to a word), sive. Two words which are essentially different 
in meaning are separated by aut : — 

Officia omnia aut pleraqve servantem vivere (Cic. Finn. IV. 6). 
Nihil aut non multum (non multum aut nihil omnino ; semel aut 
non saepe). 

The simple aut is therefore particularly used in questions which 
imply an objection or a negative, or in expressing sentiments of 
disapprobation, when we wish to separate the ideas, and to keep 
them distinct : — 

Ubi sunt ii, qvos miseros dicis, aut qvem locum incolunt? 
(Cic. Tusc. I. 6). Qvid est majus aut dif&cilius qvam severi- 
tatem cum misericordia conjungere? Homines locupletes et 
honorati patrocinio se usos aut clientes appellari mortis instar 
putant (Cic. Off. II. 20). (Concerning aut after a negative, see § 458, 
c, Obs. 2.) Vel denotes a distinction, which is of no importance, or 
relates only to the choice of an expression ; e.g. A virtute profectum 
vel in ipsa virtute positum (Cic. Tusc. II. 20) ; in the earlier writers 
especially, when a more suitable expression is added (also, vel potius ; 
vel dicam; vel, ut verius dicam; vel etiam). 1 

An unimportant distinction or one of name only is likewise ex- 
pressed by ve, either with subordinate accessory ideas of the lead- 
ing proposition, or (which is more usual) in subordinate proposi- 
tions : — 



1 Aut eloqventiae nomen relinqvendum est (Cic. de Or. n. 2), or even — ; vel 
concidat omne caelum, omnisqve natura consistat necesse est (Id. Tusc. I. 
23.) 



392 LATIN GRAMMAR. §437 

Post hanc contionem duabus tribusve horis optatissimi nuntii 
venerunt (Cic. Phil. XIV. 6) . Timet, ne qvid plus minus ve qvam 
sit necesse dicat (Cic. pro Flacco. 5 ; si plus minus ve dixero). Non 
satis est judicare, qvid faciendum non faciendum ve sit (Id. Finn. 
I. 14). Aut — aut repeated denotes an opposition, in which the mem- 
bers exclude one another, or at least are considered as distinct and sepa- 
rate : Omne enuntiatum aut verum aut falsum est ; aut omnino 
aut magna ex parte. Aut inimicitias aut labores aut sumptus sus- 
cipere nolunt (Cic. Off. I. 9). Vel — vel denotes such a distinction, 
that the things distinguished may, nevertheless, be connected {partly — 
partly), or it is indifferent (with reference to what is asserted) which is 
chosen, or such as properly relates only to a difference of expression : 
Postea, vel qvod tanta res erat, vel qvod nondum audieramus Bibu- 
lum in Syriam venisse, vel qvia administratio hujus belli mini 
cum Bibulo paene est communis, qvae ad me delata essent, scri- 
benda ad vos putavi (Cic. ad Fam. XY. 1). Nihil est tarn conve- 
niens ad res vel secundas vel adversas qvam amicitia (Id. Lsel. 
5) . Una atqve altera aestas vel metu vel spe vel poena vel proe- 
miis vel armis vel legibus potest totam Galliam sempiternis vin- 
culis adstringere (Cic. Prov. Cons. 14). (Ve — ve has the same signi- 
fication in the poets.) 

Obs. Vel has also the signification even, especially with superlatives : 
e.g. vel optime ; fructus vel maximus. Per me vel stertas licet 
(Cic. Acad. II. 29). It is used also in citing examples {for example, 
particularly) : Raras tuas qvidem sed svaves accipio litteras ; vel, 
qvas proxime acceperam, qvam prudentes! (Cic. ad Fam. II. 13). 
Qvam sis morosus vel ex hoc intelligi potest, qvod. 

Sive (seu) stands not only in the signification of vel si, or if, as a 
conditional conjunction (§ 442, 6), but also as a mere disjunctive con- 
junction, when it denotes a distinction which is not essential, or of im- 
portance. Nihil perturbatius hoc ab urbe discessu sive (seu) 
potius turpissima fuga (Cic. ad Att. VIII. 3). Ascanius florentem 
urbem matri seu novercae reliqvit (Liv. I. 3). (In the best writers, 
when used singly, it is generally found with potius, in correction of what 
has been previously said.) With sive — sive (by which, however, only 
nouns and adverbs, and not verbs, can be connected with this significa- 
tion) , it is left undecided which member is the right one, as a thing 
of no importance, so far as the purport of the sentence is concerned : 
Ita sive casu sive consilio deorum immortalium, qvae pars civi- 
tatis Helvetiae insignem calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, 
ea princeps poenas persolvit (Caes. B. G. I. 12). 

§ 437. The Adversative Conjunctions are sed, autem, verum 
(vero, ceterum), at. Yet it is to be remarked that these words 



§ 437 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 393 

often serve to introduce a new independent proposition without any 
grammatical connection, properly so called. 

Obs. Autem and vero do not stand at the beginning of a proposi- 
tion, but after a word, or two closely connected words, as, for example, a 
preposition with its case (de republica vero) ; autem, even after seve- 
ral, which cannot be well separated. 

a. Sed denotes something which alters, limits, or sets aside what 
goes before (and corresponds on the whole most nearly to the Eng- 
lish but) : — 

Ingeniosus homo, sed in omni vita inconstans. Non contentio 
animi qvaeritur, sed relaxatio. Saepe ab amico tuo dissensi, sed 
sine ulla ira. (Non qvod — , sed qvia ; non modo — sed, &c.) In 
transitions it is employed where one leaves a subject and does not mention 
it further: Sed haec parva sunt; veniamus ad majora. Ego a 
Qvinto nostro non dissentio ; sed ea, qvae restant, audiamus 
(Cic. Legg. III. 11). 

b. With autem, on the contrary, we only add something that is 
different from the preceding; and it denotes an opposition which 
does not set aside what goes before/ or serves simply to add an ob- 
servation or to continue the discourse : — 

Gyges a nullo videbatur ; ipse autem omnia videbat (Cic. Off. 
III. 9) . Mens mundi providet, primum ut mundus qvam aptissi- 
mus sit ad permanendum, deinde ut nulla re egeat, maxime autem, 
ut in eo eximia pulchritudo sit (Id. N. D. II. 22). Orationes 
Caesaris mihi vehementer probantur ; legi autem complures (Id. 
Brut. 75) . Nunc, qvod agitur, agamus ; agitur autem, liberine 
vivamus an mortem obeamus (Id. Phil. XI. 10) . Est igitur homini 
cum deo rationis societas ; inter qvos autem ratio, inter eos etiam 
recta ratio communis est (Id. Legg. I. 7) . 

c. At emphatically calls the attention to something different and 
opposed (on the other hand), and connects it with what goes before 
rather as an independent proposition : — 

Magnae divitiae, vis corporis, alia omnia hujusmodi brevi 
dilabuntur ; at ingenii egregia facinora immortalia sunt (Sail. Jug. 
2). At is frequently employed to introduce in a new proposition an ob- 
jection started by one's self or another, or the answer to an objection (yes, 
but) : At memoria minuitur (Cic. Cat. M. 7), certainly, but it is 
said that the memory is impaired. Nisi forte ego vobis cessare 
nunc videor, qvod bella non gero. At senatui, qvae sint ge- 
renda, praescribo, et qvomodo (Id. ib. 6). (This signification is still 



394 LATIN GRAMMAR. §437 

stronger in at enim, at vero.) At often stands too in the signification 
yet, however (at least, after conditional propositions) : Si se ipsos illi 
nostri liberatores e conspectu nostro abstulerunt, at exemplum 
reliqverunt (Cic. Phil. II. 44) . Res, si non splendidae, at toler- 
abiles (at tolerabiles tamen, attamen tolerabiles) . At is also to be 
noticed in interrogative exclamations subjoined to a sentence : Una 
mater Cluentium oppugnat. At qvae mater ! (Cic. pro Cluent. 70). 
Aeschines in Demosthenem invehitur. At qvam rhetorice ! qvam 
copiose ! (Id. Tusc. III. 26). And in prayers and wishes that break 
out suddenly : At te di deaeqve perduint ! (Ter. Hec. I. 2, 59) . 

Obs. Atqvi denotes ail objection and assurance (pretty much 
the same as yes, but indeed) ; in conclusions it signifies but now 
(further) : Qvod si virtutes sunt pares, paria etiam vitia esse 
necesse est. Atqvi pares esse virtutes facillime perspici potest 
(Cic. Par. III. 1. Autem is likewise sometimes used in this sense). 

d. Verum has nearly the same signification as sed (e.g. sed etiam 
and verum etiam, and in transitions : Verum de his satis dictum 
est), but somewhat more decidedly corrects what has gone before. 
Ceterum is used by some writers (Sallust, Livy) instead of sed, or 
verum, in many, but not in all combinations (e.g. not ceterum 
etiam). Vero contains properly an assurance and confirmation 
(certainly), but stands as a conjunction, when that which follows is 
asserted and maintained still more strongly than that which pre- 
cedes, particular emphasis falling on the word before vero : — 

Musica Romanis moribus abest a principis persona, saltare vero 
etiam in vitio ponitur (Corn. Epam. 1) ; or, saltare vero multo 
etiam magis, or saltare vero ne libero qvidem dignum judicatur. 
Turn vero furere Appius (historical infinitive), but then Appius 
became quite raving. In the same way we find neqve vero, and (but) 
also not, and that not : Est igitur causa omnis in opinione, nee vero 
aegritudinis solum, sed etiam reliqvarum omnium perturbationum 
(Cic. Tusc. III. 11). Vero may likewise be added to qvum — turn, to 
emphasize the truth of a statement : Pompejus qvum semper tuae 
laudi favere mihi visus est, turn vero, lectis tuis litteris, perspectus 
est a me toto animo de te ac de tuis commodis cogitare (Cic. ad 
Fam. I. 7). 

Obs. An adversative conjunction is often omitted, when the subjects 
of two propositions are brought into contrast by the different things pred- 
icated of them ; or when the same thing differently qualified is predicated 
of them. The same omission occurs between two subordinate propositions 
which are coordinate with each other, provided their mutual relation is suffi- 
ciently obvious without the conjunction : Opinionum commenta delet 



§439 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 395 

dies, naturae judicia confirmat (Cic. N. D. II. 2). Opifices in artifi- 
ciis suis utuntur vocabulis nobis incognitis, usitatis sibi (Id. Finn. 
m. 2) . Qvum primo Galli tantum avidi certaminis fuissent, deinde 
Romanus miles ruendo in dimicationem aliqvantuni Gallicam 
ferociam vinceret, dictatori neutiqvam placebat fortunae se com- 
mittere adversus hostem iis animis corporibusqve, qvorum omnis 
in impetu vis esset, parva eadem langvesceret mora (Liv. VII. 
12) . Qvid est, qvamobrem abs te Q. Hortensii factum non repre- 
hendatur, reprehendatur meum (Cic. pro Sull. 1). 

§ 438. Sometimes two coordinate propositions, whether connected 
by means of autem and vero, or standing together without any con- 
junction, must be understood to combine their meaning in such a 
way, that they together only make one assertion. The sense might 
therefore be expressed (and often is expressed in English) by sub- 
ordinating the one proposition to the other by means of a conjunc- 
tion. This form of expression is made use of, when, in order to 
prove something, we seek to draw attention to the agreement or 
difference, compatibility or incompatibility, of two propositions, and 
the combined propositions are either expressed interrogatively 
('rarely in the negative), or attached to a leading proposition which 
points to the combination of the two as incongruous or absurd. 

Qvid igitur? Hoc pueri possunt, viri non poterunt? (Cic. Tusc. 
II. 14). Cur igitur jus civile docere semper pulchrum fuit, ad 
dicendum si qvis acuat autadjuvetin eo juventutem vituperetur? 
(Id. Or. 41), if therefore it ivas always a creditable tiling — , loliy should 
any one be censured — ? Est profecto divina vis, neqve in his cor- 
poribus atqve in hac imbecillitate nostra inest qviddam, qvod 
vigeat et sentiat, et non inest in hoc tanto naturae tarn praeclaro 
motu (Id. pro Mil. 31), and if there is something in our bodies that 
lives and feels, it cannot be supposed that there is not, &c). Qvid 
causae est, cur Cassandra furens futura prospiciat, Priamus sapiens 
idem facere non qveat ? (Id. Div. I. 39) . Neminem oportet esse 
tam stulte arrogantem, ut in se rationem et mentem putet inesse, 
in caelo mundoqve non putet (Id. Legg. II. 7). A double question 
of this kind is often connected with what precedes by an (or — ? § 453) : 
An ex hostium urbibus Romam ad nos transferri sacra religiosum 
fuit, hinc sine piaculo in hostium urbem Vejos transferemus ? 
(Liv. Y. 52). 

§ 439. (Subordinate Combination). Concerning the conjunctions 
with which objective propositions are formed in the subjunctive, see 
the Appendix to Chap. III. of this Part (§ 371 and the following) ; 



396 LATIN GRAMMAB. §440 

concerning propositions with qvod to denote a relation actually sub- 
sisting, see § 398, b. 

Obs. 1. (Attraction). In object-clauses with conjunctions, or in de- 
pendent questions, we sometimes find this irregularity, that a substantive 
(or pronoun), that ought to be the subject in the object-clause, is drawn 
into the leading proposition, either as the object of the verb or as the 
subject, in case the verb would otherwise stand impersonally (as intran- 
sitive or in the passive voice). In good prose, however, this Attraction is 
very rare, and is found after an active verb only where the writer at first 
contemplated another turn of expression, and afterwards added the sub- 
ordinate proposition: Istuc, qvidqvid est, fac me, ut sciam (Ter. 
Heaut. I. 1, 32). Simul vereor Pamphilum, ne orata nostra 
neqveat diutius celare (Id. Hec. IV. 1, 60) =ne Pamphilus. Qvae 
timebatis, ea ne accidere possent, consilio meo ac ratione provisa 
sunt (Cic. de Leg. Agr. II. 37), instead of provisum est. Nam san- 
gvinem, bilem, pituitam, ossa, nervos, venas, omnem deniqve mem- 
brorum et totius corporis figuram videor posse dicere, unde con- 
creta et qvomodo facta sint (Id. Tusc. I. 24) . Nosti Marcellum, 
qvam tardus et parum efticax sit (Cael. Cic. ad Fam. VIII. 10). 

Obs. 2. Where by the pronouns hie and particularly ille, a fact 
related to the main proposition is referred to, which fact is soon to be 
stated, the statement often follows in an independent proposition with 
enim or nam instead of a proposition with qvod : Atqve etiam ilia 
concitatio declarat vim in animis esse divinam. Negant enim 
sine furore qvemqvam poetam magnum esse posse (Cic. de Div. I. 
37). Sed ilia sunt lumina duo, qvae maxime causam istam con- 
tinent. Primum enim negatis fieri posse, &e. (Id. Acad. II. 33). 



§ 440. a. A proposition expressing a result may either be con- 
nected with a demonstrative word preceding, which signifies a 
measure or degree (sic, ita, adeo, tarn, tantus, talis, is, &c.) or 
be annexed without any such correlative word. We should notice 
the use of qvam ut after a comparative, signifying (greater) than 
that, too (great) to. (Also, qvam qvi, § 308, Obs. 1.) 

Obs. 1. Tantum abest, ut — ut (not ut potius) : Tantum abest, ut 
amicitiae propter indigentiam colantur, ut ii, qvi propter virtutem 
minime alterius indigeant, liberalissimi sint atqve beneficentis- 
simi (Cic. Lael. 14). Sometimes, after tantum abest, ut, the second 
proposition is put independently, instead of being connected by ut as a 
proposition expressing a result. Tantum abfuit, ut inflammares 
nostros animos; vix somnum tenebamus (Cic. Brut. 87). 



§ 440 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 397 

Obs. 2. Both an object-clause with ut and a result may sometimes 
stand with the same leading proposition : At ceteris forsitan ita 
petitum sit, ut dicerent, ut utrumvis salvo officio facere se posse 
arbitrarentur (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 1). 

Obs. 3. Ut non (in such a way, that — not) is used after a negative 
proposition to denote a necessary and inevitable consequence (not — 
without) ; e.g. Ruere ilia non possunt, ut haec non eodem labefacta 
motu concidant (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 7). The same meaning is ex- 
pressed by qvin ; e.g. Nunqvam accedo, qvin abs te abeam doctior 
(Ter. Eun. IY. 7, 21). Qvin, that not (see § 375, c, Obs. 4), is gen- 
erally employed after negative assertions (nemo, nihil est, &c), and 
after questions which have a negative force (qvis est, &c), to express 
what holds universally without any exception : Nihil est, qvin male 
narrando possit depravari (Ter. Phorm. IY. 4, 16) = qvod non. 
Nullus est cibus tarn gravis, qvin is die et nocte concoqvatur (Cic. 
N. D. II. 9) = qvi non. Hortensius nullum patiebatur esse diem 
qvin aut in foro diceret aut meditaretur extra forum (Id. Brut. 
88) . Nunqvam tarn male est Siculis, qvin aliqvid facete et com- 
mode dicant (Id. Yerr. IY. 43). 

Obs. 4. Ut takes the signification of although, even suppose that, 
from first signifying, " even if we suppose the case that ; " the proposition 
is therefore a result, and is expressed negatively with ut non : Ut 
qvaeras omnia, qvomodo Graeci ineptum appellent, non reperies 
(Cic. de Or. II. 4). Verum ut hoc non sit, tamen praeclarum spec- 
taculum mini propono (Id. ad Att. II. 15) . 

Obs. 5. Qvo, that so much(=ut eo), is used when a comparative 
follows (qvo facilius, that so much more easily = that the more easily) . 
In a few cases, it is equivalent to a simple ut, or has the meaning that 
thereby ; e.g. Deos hominesqve testamur, nos arma neqve contra 
patriam cepisse neqve qvo pericula aliis faceremus (Sail. Cat. 33). 
Qvare, also, is sometimes used to signify either that by those means, or 
(so) that on that account : Permulta sunt, qvae dici possunt, qvare 
intelligatur, summam tibi fuisse facultatem maleficii suscipiendi 
(Cic. pro Rose. Am. 33). 

Obs. 6. A proposition denoting a design sometimes indicates, not the 
object of the leading proposition given, but the design with which the 
statement is made, the proposition on which it really depends being 
omitted for the sake of brevity : Senectus est natura loqvacior ; ne 
ab omnibus earn vitiis videar vindicare (Cic. Cat. Maj. 16), which I 
mention, that I may not, &c. A similar omission is sometimes found 
with si, qvoniam, qvandoqvidem ; e.g. Qvandoqvidem est apud 
te virtuti honos, ut beneficio tuleris a me, qvod minis neqvisti, 
trecenti conjuravimus principes juventutis Romanae, ut in te 



398 LATIN GRAMMAR. §442 

hac via grassaremur (Liv. I. 12), that you may, &c, I will tell you, 
three hundred of us, &c. 

§ 441. Concerning the causal conjunctions (which indicate either 
a proper cause, or simply an occasion and some general relation 
which constitutes the motive for an action ; qvod, qvia, qvum, qvo- 
niam, more forcibly expressed qvoniam qvidem, qvando, qvando- 
qvidem), nothing further is to be observed in a grammatical point 
of view (with reference to the form of the proposition) than what 
has been laid down above in Chap. III. (§§ 357, 358) concerning 
the mood of propositions so connected. On the conjunctions of 
time, and the form of the propositions which they connect, see, also, 
Chapters II. and III. (§§ 358, 359, 360). 

Obs. We may also notice ut in the signification of since : Ut illos 
libros edidisti, nihil a te postea accepimus (Cic. Brut. 5) ; also, 
Annus est, qvum (ex qvo) ilium vidi. 

§ 442. a. Of the Conditional Conjunctions it is to be ob- 
served, that si in descriptions and narratives sometimes designates 
rather each repeated occasion (as often as, every time that), than a 
condition (§ 359). The limitations of its meaning are more precise 
in the expressions si modo, si qvidem, if indeed (sometimes nearly 
causal, since), si maxime, if ever so much ; si forte, if by chance ; 
si jam, if now ; ita si, under the condition, in case that Sometimes 
a proposition has two conditions annexed to it, the one more general 
(more remote), and the other more special (proximate) : — 

Si qvis istorum dixisset, qvos videtis adesse, in qvibus summa 
auctoritas est, si verbum de republica fecisset, multo plura dix- 
isse, qvam dixisset, putaretur (Cic. Rose. Am. 1). (For the ar- 
rangement, compare § 476, b ; and concerning si as an interrogative 
particle, see below, § 451, d.) 

Obs. 1. Turn, or (more forcibly) turn vero (then, indeed), is some- 
times used in the apodosis, where a circumstance is to be marked em- 
phatically or contrasted with others : Si id actum est, fateor me er- 
rasse qvi hoc maluerim ; sin autem victoria nobilium ornamento 
atqve emolumento reipublicae debet esse, turn vero optimo et 
nobilissimo cuiqve meam orationem gratissimam esse oportet 
(Cic. pro Rose. Am. 49). Haec si et ages et senties, turn eris non 
modo consul, sed magnus etiam consul (Id. ad Fam. X. 6). (Si — 
at, see § 437, c.) 



§442 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 899 

Obs. 2. In animated discourse, instead of a protasis with si, the con- 
dition is sometimes enunciated in an independent proposition, and that 
which would have been the apodosis follows also in a distinct proposi- 
tion. In such cases, the indicative is used (sometimes in an interroga- 
tive form) , when a thing is spoken of, which actually occurs now and 
then, or perhaps will occur, its real existence being here neither affirmed 
nor denied ; otherwise, the subjunctive, as relating to an imaginary 
assumption (§ 352): De paupertate agitur, multi patientes pau- 
peres commemorantur ; de contemnendo honore, multi inhono- 
rati proferuntur (Cic. Tusc. III. 24). Rides, majore cachinno 
concutitur ; flet, si lacrimas conspexit amici (Juv. III. 100) . Roges 
me (suppose you were to ask me) qvalem deorum naturam esse 
ducam, nihil fortasse respondeam ; qvaeras, putemne talem esse, 
qvalis modo a te sit exposita, nihil dicam mini videri minus (Cic. 
N. D. I. 21). Dares hanc vim M. Crasso, ut digitorum percus- 
sione heres posset scriptus esse, qvi re vera non esset heres, in 
foro, mihi crede, saltaret (Id. Off. III. 19). In a real protasis of a 
hypothetical sentence, on the contrary, si is only omitted by the poets in 
some few passages, where the connection and the form of the verb make 
the relation sufficiently obvious : Tu qvoqve magnam partem opere 
in tanto, sineret dolor, Icare, haberes (Yirg. iEn. VI. 30). 

Obs. 3. In order to show that a certain conseqence does not follow 
from a particular condition or relation, the negative precedes the condi- 
tional proposition : Non, si Opimium defendisti, Carbo, idcirco te 

isti bonum civem putabunt (Cic. de Or. II. 40) . (Non, si , 

idcirco non, it does not follow, that — not § 460.) 



b. Sin (as well as sin autem) stands for si to signify but if, if, 
on the other hand, either after another protasis with si, or without 
any such preceding it : — 

Si plane a nobis deficis, moleste fero ; sin Pansae assentari 
commodum est, ignosco (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 12). Luxuria qvum 
omni aetati turpis turn senectuti foedissima est ; sin autem etiam 
libidinum intemperantia accessit, duplex malum est (Id. Off. I. 
34). Sive stands for vel si, or if ; e.g. Postulo, sive aeqvum est, 
oro (Ter. Andr. I. 2, 19) = vel, si aeqvum est, oro, as it is also ex- 
pressed. Sive — sive repeated, with a common apodosis, signifies 
whether — or (§ 332, Obs.). But sive — sive may stand in such a way, 
that each sive forms the protasis to a distinct apodosis, when two cases 
are put, and the consequence assigned to each (a dilemma) : Sive enim 
ad sapientiam perveniri potest, non paranda solum ea, sed fruenda 
etiam est ; sive hoc difficile est, tamen nullus est modus investi- 



400 LATIN GRAMMAR. §442 

gandi veri (Cic. Finn. L 1). (In English, this can only be distin- 
guished by a periphrasis from si — sin : For one can either attain wisdom 
or not ; in the first case, &c.) 

Obs. For sive volo, sive nolo, the expression velim, nolim (sup- 
pose I toere willing, suppose I were univilling = whether I wish it or not) 
is also used in familiar language. 

c. A negative condition is expressed by nisi, if not (unless), in 
such a way as to exclude the case in which a thing does not occur ; 
while, when this condition is wanting, it does or would occur, does, 
or would do so. (Hi is antiquated, but occurs in certain expres- 
sions of legal phraseology and of daily life, and in some few other 
instances ; e.g. ita ; ni ita est. For nisi we sometimes find nisi si, 
except if except in case that) Si non, with an emphasis on the 
negation, is used only where non is united with the following verb 
so as to form one negative idea (not to do, not to be), which is put 
forward in opposition to the affirmative notion, so that the case in 
which a thing holds, or will hold, is negatively expressed : — 

Glebani commosset in agro decumano Siciliae nemo, si 
Metellus hanc epistolam non misisset (Cic. Yerr. III. 18), if Me- 
tellus had omitted to send this letter. Fuit apertum, si Conon non 
fuisset (if it had not been for Conon), Agesiliaum Asiam Tauro tenus 
regi erepturum fuisse (Corn. Con. 2) . Aeqvitas tollitur omnis, si 
habere suum cuiqve non licet (Cic. Off. II. 22), if hindrances are 
laid in the icay of every marts keeping his own. 

In most cases nisi may also be here used, with a slight difference ; e.g. 
Nisi Conon fuisset; yet not always; e.g. Si feceris id, qvod os- 
tendis, magnam habebo gratiam ; si non feceris, ignoscam (Cic. 
ad Fam. V. 19) . In the signification though not — , yet, we never have 
nisi, but si non (also si minus, chiefly where there is no separate verb 
attached) ; e.g. Si mini republica bona frui non licuerit, at carebo 
mala (Cic. pro Mil. 34). Cum spe, si non bona, at aliqva tamen 
vivere. Hoc si minus verbis, re confiteri cogitur (Cic. de Fat. 10). 
If not, without a verb, in opposition to something going before, is ex- 
pressed by si (sin) minus, more rarely si non : Si id assecutus sum, 
gaudeo; sin minus, hoc me tamen consolor, qvod posthac nos 
vises (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 1). Si qvid novisti rectius istis, candi- 
dus imperti ; si non, his utere mecum (Hor. Ep. I. 6, 67). 

Obs. 1. Nisi forte, unless perchance, except on the supposition that, 
connects a limitation and exception with the foregoing: Nemo fere 
saltat sobrius, nisi forte insanit (Cic. pro Mur. 6) . An ironical or 



§ 443 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 401 

taunting conjecture is often added in this way : Non possum reperire 
qvamobrem te in istam amentiam incidisse arbitrer, nisi forte id 
egisti (unless, perchance, this was your object), ut hominibus ne ob- 
livisci qvidem rerum tuarum male gestarum liceret (Cic. Verr. III. 
80). (Nisi vero is always ironical.) 

Obs. 2. Nisi is subjoined to negatives and questions with a negative 
sense with the signification of but or except : Qvod adhuc nemo nisi 
improbissimus fecit, posthac nemo nisi stultissimus non faciet 
(Cic. Verr. III. 94). Qvem unqvam senatus civem nisi me (= 
praeter me) nationibus exteris commendavit ? (Id. pro Sest. 60) . 
Nunqvam vidi animam rationis participem in ulla alia nisi hu- 
mana figura (Id. N. D. I. 31). Nihil aliud fecerunt nisi rem de- 
tulerunt (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 37). In this way, non and nisi often 
belong to one phrase (not — except, only), but in the best writers they 
are usually separated by their position : Primum hoc sentio, nisi in 
bonis viris amicitiam esse non posse (Cic. Lsel. 5). 

Obs. 3. After a negative proposition (or one which has a negative 
force) , nisi (nisi tamen) introduces an exception (only, only so much, 
yet) : De re nihil possum judicare ; nisi illud mihi persvadeo, te, 
talem virum, nihil temere fecisse (Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 73). Plura 
de Jugurtha scribere dehortatur me fortuna mea, et jam antea 
expertus sum, parum fidei miseris esse. Nisi tamen intelligo, 
ilium supra, qvam ego sum, petere (Sail. Jug. 24). (Nisi qvod, 
except in so far as, occurs also after affirmative propositions : Tuscu- 
lanum et Pompejanum valde me delectant; nisi qvod me aere 
alieno obruerunt, Cic. ad Att. II. 1). 

§ 443. Concessive Conjunctions are those which denote some 
opposing circumstance, notwithstanding which the leading proposi- 
tion is true, and may signify, either simply that we allow such 
circumstance to be assumed, or that we actually assert it as a fact ; 
such are qvamvis, licet, qvanqvam, etsi, tametsi (tamenetsi), eti- 
amsi, usually employed when the concessive proposition comes first, 
with tamen following. See § 361, with the Observations. (TJt, sup- 
pose even, even if; see § 440, a, Obs. 4. ftvum, whereas, while on 
the other hand; see § 358, Obs. 3.) Of these, qvanqvam, etsi, and 
tametsi (most frequently qvanqvam) are also so used, that they 
do not indicate a subordinate proposition, but annex a remark by 
which the preceding statement is limited and corrected, in an inde- 
pendent form as a leading proposition (however, and yet, certainly, 
although) : — 

26 



402 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 444 

Qvanqvam non sumus ignari, multos studiose contra esse dic- 
turos. Qvanqvam qvid loqvor ? Qvanqvam qvis ignorat, tria 
Graecorum esse genara? (This is often done when the preceding 
train of thought is broken off as useless or superfluous). Etsi persa- 
pienter et qvodam modo tacite dat ipsa lex potestatem defen- 
dendi (Cic. pro Mil. 4) , yet it is superfluous to argue that the law must 

sometimes give way to higher considerations, for the law itself . 

Mini etiam qvi optime dicunt, tamen, nisi timide ad dicendum 
accedunt, et in exordienda oratione perturbantur, paene impu- 
dentes videntur. Tametsi id accidere non potest (Cic. de Or. 
1.26). 

Obs. Later writers combine concessive particles without a verb of 
their own, not only with participles (see § 424, Obs. 4, § 428, Obs. 2), 
but also with adjectives, and other words used to qualify a pro- 
position; e.g. Cicero immanitatem parricidii, qvanqvam per se 
manifestam, tamen etiam vi orationis exaggerat (Quint. IX. 2, 53, 
for qvanqvam per se manifesta est). In the earlier writers, qvamvis 
only is found with an adjective, in the signification though ever so ; e.g. 
Si hoc onere carerem, qvamvis parvis Italiae latebris contentus 
essem (Cic. ad Fam. II. 16) . 

§ 444. The Comparative Conjunctions are of two kinds. 

a. A resemblance (as, in the same way as) is expressed by the parti- 
cles ut, uti (ut — ita, item; which also signify as, for example), sicut, 
velut (also signifying for example), ceu (in the poets, and later prose- 
writers), tanqvam (also signifying as if, see Obs. 1), qvasi (as if, 
see the same Obs.) ; also, qvemadmodum, in the comparison of two 
propositions (rarely, qvomodo). (Prout, in proportion as ; pro eo, 
ut , pro eo, qvantum .) 

Obs. 1. Tanqvam rarely (and qvasi still more rarely) denotes a 
comparison of two things, both of which are stated as actual facts 
(Artifex partium in republica tanqvam in scena optimarum, Cic. 
pro Sest. 56, an actor, who plays the best part in the state, as well as 
on the stage. Tanqvam poetae boni solent, sic tu in extrema parte 
muneris tui diligentissimus esse debes, Id. ad. Q. Fr. I. i. c, 16). 
In this case, the idea is generally expressed by ut, sicut, qvemadmo- 
dum — ita. A hypothetical proposition, which is only assumed for the 
sake of comparison (as if, § 349) is expressed by tanqvam or tanqvam 
si, velut si (ut si, rarely velut alone) and qvasi. Qvasi (qvasi vero) 
is particularly used, when in derision, or to correct an erroneous suppo- 
tion, we state what is not the case : Qvasi ego id curem ! As if I 
cared for that ! Qvasi vero haec similia sint (non multum intersit) ! 



§444 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 403 

(Perinde, or proinde qvasi, perinde tanqvam, in the same way as if, 
perinde ac si). 1 

Obs. 2. Qvasi stands before a word, to signify that it is used to ex- 
press a thing figuratively, and by way of approximation ; e.g. Servis 
respublica qvaedam et qvasi civitas domus est (Plin. Ep. VIII. 
16) . Qvasi morbus qvidam, qvasi qvoddam vinculum.) 

Obs. 3. A comparison by means of ut — ita (sic) is often made use 
of, in order to draw attention to a difference, and to limit the first mem- 
ber by the second, with the signification certainly — but {on tlie other 
hand) : Ut errare potuisti (qvis enim id effugerit ?) sic decipi te 
non potuisse, qvis non videt? (Cic. ad Fam. X. 20). Consul ut 
fortasse vere, sic parum utiliter in praesens certamen respondit 
(Liv. IV. 6) . On the use of ut — ita with qvisqve, see § 495. Ita 

(with a wish) — ut is used in oaths (so truly , as) : Ita me dii 

ament, ut ego nunc non tarn mea causa laetor qvam illius 
(Ter. Heaut. TV, 1,8); the wish may also be inserted in the affirmation 
as a parenthesis, without ut : Saepe, ita me dii juvent, te auctorem 
consiliorum meorum desideravi (Cic. ad Att. I. 16). (Compare 
peream, si § 348, Obs. 4.) 

Obs. 4. Notice the form of expression in the following : Ajunt homi- 
nem, ut erat furiosus, respondisse, &c. (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 12, where 
the adjective is introduced into the clause expressing comparison, raging 
as he ivas = qvo erat furore, not hominem furiosum, ut erat). 

Obs. 5. Where an example is added to confirm what precedes, this 
is not put, as in English, in a demonstrative form (so, for example, your 
father lately told me), bat relatively with ut (velut) : Ut nuper pater 
tuus mini narravit . 

K Qvam and ac (atqye) are used as conjunctions which merely 
connect the members of a comparison, without themselves express- 
ing similarity (or equality). Qvam stands after tarn (so — as), after 
comparatives and words with a comparative signification, as ante, 
post, supra, malo, praestat. (Dimidius, multiplex qvam.) Ac, 
which is also a simple copulative conjunction, has the signification of 
as, than, &c, with adjectives and adverbs which denote similarity 
or dissimilarity (equality or inequality) ; namely, similis, dissimilis, 
similiter, par, pariter, aeqve, juxta, perinde or proinde, contra- 
rius, contra, alius, aliter, secus, pro eo (in proportion as), and 
sometimes after idem, talis, totidem, for qvi, qvalis, qvot (§ 328, 



1 Perinde ac instead of perinde ac si, and sicut instead of velut si, are rare ex- 
pressions. 



404 LATIN GRAMMAR. §445 

b) ; also in combination with si (perinde, similis, similiter, pari- 
ter, juxta, idem ac si, as if) : — 

Amicos aeqve ac semetipsos diligere oportet. Date operam, 
ne siinili utamur fortuna atqve antea usi sumus (Ter. Phorm. Prol. 
38). Similiter facis, ac si me roges, cur te duobus contuear ocu- 
lis (Cic. N. D. III. 3). Aliter, atqve ostenderam, facio (Id. ad 
Fain. II. 3) . Longe alia nobis, ac tu scripseras, narrantur (Id. ad 
Att. XI. 10). Non dixi secus, ac sentiebam (Id. de Or. II. 6). 
Philosophia non proinde, ac de hominum vita merita est, lauda- 
tur (Id. Tusc. V. 2). Gornelii filius Sullam accusat, idemqve 
valere debet, ac si pater indicaret (Id. pro Sull. 18). 

Obs. 1. Aeqve, juxta, proinde, contra, and secus, are also, but 
less frequently, constructed with qvam. Alius, aliter, may stand with 
qvam, if the proposition in which they occur is negative, or interroga- 
tive with a negative sense, and sometimes under other circumstances, in 
the later writers (from Livy, downwards) : Agitur nihil aliud in hac 
causa, qvam ut nullum sit posthac in re publica publicum con- 
silium (Cic. pro Rab. perd. 2). Cavebo, ne aliter Hortensius, 
qvam ego velim, meum laudet ingenium (Id. Yerr. I. 9). Jovis 
epulum num alibi qvam in Capitolio fieri potest? (Liv. V. 52). 
Te alia omnia, qvam qvae velis, agere moleste fero (Plin. Ep. VII. 
15) . Instead of nihil (qvid) aliud qvam, we often find nihil (qvid) 
aliud nisi ; e.g. Bellum ita suscipi debet, ut nihil aliud nisi pax 
qvaesita videatur (Cic. Off. I. 23). (See § 442, c, Obs. 2.) 

Obs. 2. Instead of similis, similiter, proinde ac si, we also find si- 
milis, similiter, proinde ut si, tanqvam si, qvasi. 

Obs. 3. A copulative clause may occasionally supply the place of a 
comparative ; e.g. Haec eodem tempore Caesari mandata refere- 
bantur et legati ab Aeduis et a Treviris veniebant (Caes. B. G. I. 
37) , at one and the same time Ccesar received these orders and ambassa- 
dors came . Et is very rarely found after alius, and other words, 

where it cannot be understood as purely copulative. 

Obs. 4. In the poets, and later writers, the word expressing compari- 
son is sometimes repeated, without a conjunction : Aeqve pauperibus 
prodest, locupletibus aeqve (Hor. Ep. I. 1, 25). 

§ 445. The use of relative propositions in Latin has some pecu- 
liarities. 

A relative proposition may again have a subordinate proposition 
appended to it, to which it stands in the relation of a leading prop- 
osition; e.g. Ut ignava animalia, qvae jacent torpentqve, si 
cibum iis suggeras. If, then, the relative refers to the same per- 



§ 445 CONJUNCTIONS AND PAETICLES. 405 

son or thing (as the demonstrative) in the subordinate proposition 
(like iis in the above example), the relative may be incorporated 
in the proposition which was subordinate to it, but now takes the 
lead of it, and may have its case determined by the new construc- 
tion (so that in the leading proposition a demonstrative is to be 
supplied from the subordinate) : — 

Ut ignava animalia, qvibus si cibum suggeras, jacent torpentqve 
(Tac. Hist. III. 36) ; just as one may say, Ignavis animalibus si cibum 
suggeras, jacent torpentqve). Is enim fueram, cui qvum liceret 
majores ex otio fructus capere qvam ceteris, non dubitaverim me 
gravissimis tempestatibus obvium ferre (Cic. E.. P. I. 4) = qvi 
qvum mini liceret , non dubitaverim. 

In the next place a connection may be formed by a relative pro- 
noun between a leading and subordinate proposition (a protasis and 
apodosis), in which the relative pronoun belongs exclusively to the 
subordinate proposition (without being at the same time understood 
as a demonstrative in the leading proposition). Propositions thus 
connected are expressed in English either by resolving the relative 
into a demonstrative (which belongs to the subordinate proposition) 
and a conjunction (belonging to the leading proposition) or by a 
circumlocution ; sometimes the subordinate proposition may be ren- 
dered by an infinitive or a substantive with a preposition : — 

Ea svasi Pompejo, qvibus ille si paruisset, Caesar tantas opes, 
qvantas nunc habet, non haberet (Cic. ad Fam. VI. 6) = ut, si ille 
iis paruisset, Caesar tantas opes habiturus non fuerit, &c. Noli 
adversus eos me velle ducere, cum qvibus ne contra tc arma fer- 
rem, Italiam reliqvi (Corn. Att. IV.) = against those with whom I was 
so unwilling to bear arms against you, that I left Italy for that very 
reason. Ea mini dedisti, qvae ut conseqverer, qvemvis laborem, 
suscepturus fui, the very thing for the attainment of which 7, &c. 
Populus Romanus turn ducem habuit, qvalis si qvi nunc esset, 
tibi idem, qvod illis accidit, contigisset (Cic. Phil. II. 7) . 

In this way two relatives sometimes come together in the same 
sentence (in different cases), when its subordinate proposition is 
already relative for some other reason : — 

Epicurus non satis politus est iis artibus, qvas qvi tenent, era- 
diti appellantur (Cic. Finn. I. 7, the possessors of which are called 
learned, or, the possession of which procures one the appellation of 
learned) . Infima est condicio et fortuna servorum, qvibus, non 



406 LATIN GRAMMAR. §447 

male praecipiunt, qvi ita jubent uti ut mercenariis (Id. Off. I. 13) . 
(Ea mihi eripere conantur qvae, si adempta fuerint, nulla dignita- 
tis meae conservandae spes relinqvitur = qvibus ademptis, § 428, 
Obs. 7). 

§ 446. A relative clause is in a peculiar manner introduced into 
or placed before a proposition, to show the relation of this proposi- 
tion to some quality or characteristic of the person or thing spoken 
of in the proposition. This quality, or characteristic, is mentioned 
in the relative clause, of which it is usually the subject, with sum ; 
but it sometimes forms a genitive or ablative of quality with the 
relative, and as such qualifies the subject of the main proposition : — 

Si mini negotium permisisses, qvi meus amor in te est, confecis- 
sem (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 2) , such is my love to you. Spero, qvae tua 
prudentia et temperantia est, te jam, ut volumus, vivere (Id. ad 
Att. VI. 9). Qva es prudentia, nihil te fugiet (Id. ad Fam. XI. 3). 
Ajax, qvo animo traditur (sc. fuisse), millies oppetere mortem 
qvam ilia perpeti maluisset (Id. Off. I. 31). (The same sense may 
be expressed by pro : Tu pro tua prudentia, qvid optimum factu 
sit, videbis, Cic. ad Fam, X. 27) . 

Obs. Qvantus is sometimes used in the same way : Qvanta in- 
genia in nostris hominibus esse video, non despero fore aliqvem 
aliqvando, qvi existat talis orator, qvalem qvaerimus (Cic. de Or. 

I. 21), considering the great abilities which . Illis, qvantum 

importunitatis habent, parum est impune male fecisse (Sail. 
Jug. 31). 

§ 447. Where in English the subject of a proposition is described 
by means of the verb to be, and a superlative, or an ordinal numeral, 
or a substantive with an adjective, followed by a relative clause, in 
Latin only a simple proposition is used, while the superlative, or 
ordinal, is used appositively : — 

Primum omnium Sejum vidimus, the first man we saiv was Sejus. 
Hoc firmissimo utimur argument© (or ex argumentis, qvibus uti- 
mur, firmissimum hoc est, with the relative proposition referring to the 
whole class ; not argumentum firmissimum, qvo utimur, hoc est). 
Caesar explorat, qvo commodissimo itinere vallem transire pos- 
sit (Caes. B. G. V. 49). Non contemnendus hie hostis advenit, 
it is no contemptible enemy that is coming here. 1 



1 Charilaus fuit, qvi ad Publium Philonem venit et tradere se ait moe- 
nia statuisse (Liv. VIII. 25), i.e. there was a certain Charilaus there: he came — : not, It 
was Charilaus, who (Charilaus ad Philonem venit). 



§ 449 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 407 

§ 448. The Latins often use the relative pronoun, not to connect 
a subordinate proposition, but as a demonstrative, in order to con- 
tinue the discourse in a new proposition, so that qvi stands for is, 
while it at the same time connects the proposition with the preced- 
ing, almost like et is (never, therefore, where et or some other par- 
ticle of transition is actually made use of.) But this can only be 
done when no emphasis rests on the pronoun (on account of an 
antithesis or the like), ftvi may also be used in this way in a 
protasis, and in combination with such conjunctions as mark a pro- 
tasis; e.g. qvi qvum (=et qvum is). In the same way are 
employed the relative particles qvare, qvamobrem, qvapropter, 
qvocirca {and therefore) : — 

Caesar eqvitatum omnem mittit, qvi videant, qvas in partes 
hostes iter faciant. Qvi, cupidius novissimum agmen insecuti, 
alieno loco cum eqvitatu Helvetiorum proelium committunt 
(Cses. B. G. I. 15). Postremo insidias vitae hujusce Sex. Roscii 
parare coeperunt, neqve arbitrabantur se posse diutius alienam 
pecuniam domino incolumi obtinere. Qvod hie simulatqve sensit, 
de amicorum cognatorumqve sententia Romam confugit (Cic. pro 
Rose. Am. 9), as soon as lie observed this. Qvae qvum ita suit, nihil 
cense o mutandum (now this being the state of the case) . 

Obs. 1. Sometimes such a relative refers more freely to a person or 
thing not named in the words which immediately precede it, but sug- 
gested by the connection, and mentioned not long before ; e.g. Ad 
illam qvam institui, causam frumenti ac decumarum revertar. 
Qvi qvum agros maximos per se ipsum depopularetur, ad mi- 
nores civitates habebat alios qvos immitteret (Cic. Verr. III. 36, 
of Yerres, whose conduct is the subject of the whole passage) . 

Obs. 2. In Latin, neither an adversative conjunction (autem, vero) 
nor one that expresses a conclusion (igitur, ideo) can be attached to the 
relative. Yet sed qvi is used in opposition to a preceding adjective 
(but in this case the sed connects the adjective with the omitted antece- 
dent of qvi) : Vir bonus, sed qvi omnia negligenter agat. But if 
a compound proposition begins with a relative clause, the conjunction 
which belongs to the leading proposition is drawn into it : Qvae autem 
(igitur) cupiditates a natura proficiscuntur, facile explentur =Eae 
autem (igitur) cupiditates, qvae, &c. 

§ 449. Qvod (properly the neuter of the relative pronoun) some- 
times stands before a conjunction belonging to a subordinate propo- 
sition which begins a period, to denote the connection of the thought 
with the preceding, especially before si and nisi (qvod si, now if 



408 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 450 

and if but if qvod nisi), but also before etsi, qvia, qvoniam, and 
utinam : — 

Qvod si corporis gravioribus morbis vitae jucunditas impedi- 
tur, qvanto magis animi morbis impediri necesse est ? (Cic. Finn. 
I. 18), and if — . Coluntur tyranni duntaxat ad tempus. Qvod 
si forte ceciderunt, turn intelligitur, qvam fuerint inopes amico- 

rum (Id. Lsel. 15), but if they fait . Qvodsi illinc inanis pro- 

fugisses, tamen ista tua fuga nefaria, proditio consulis tui scelerata 

judicaretur (Id. Verr. I. 14), now even if . Qvod nisi Metel- 

lus hoc tarn graviter egisset atqve illam rem imperio prohibuisset, 
vestigium statuarum Verris in tota Sicilia nullum esset relictum 
(Id. ib. II. 66). Qvod etsi ingeniis magnis praediti qvidam di- 
cendi copiam sine ratione conseqvuntur, ars tamen est dux cer- 

tior qvam natura (Id. Finn. IV. 4), and even if . Qvod qvia 

nullo modo sine amicitia firmam et perpetuam jucunditatem 
vitae tenere possumus, idcirco amicitia cum voluptate connecti- 
tur (Id. ib. I. 20). In other cases, when qvod stands before qvum 
and ubi, it has its original signification as a relative pronoun (in the place 
of the demonstrative) in such a way that that which is briefly indicated 
by the pronoun is afterwards expressed more definitely by an accusative 
with the infinitive (according to § 395, Obs. 6), by which means the pro- 
noun becomes superfluous : e.g. Criminabatur etiam M. Pomponius L. 
Manlium, qvod Titum filium, qvi postea est Torqvatus, appellatus 
ab hominibus relegasset et ruri habitare jussisset. Qvod qvum 
audisset adolescens Alius, negotium exhiberi patri, accurrisse 
Romam dicitur (Cic. Off. III. 31), when the son observed this, 
that - 1 

§ 450. A direct question, in which no interrogative pronoun, pro- 
nominal adjective, or adverb is used, may be put without any parti- 
cle, which marks its interrogative character, if it is asked with an 
expression of doubt and surprise ; a question expressed affirmatively 
implying that the answer is expected in the negative, and vice 
versa : — 

Tantimal eficii crimen probare te, Eruci, censes posse talibus 
viris, si ne causam qvidem maleficii protuleris ? (Cic. Rose. Am. 
26). Ut omittam vim et naturam deorum, ne homines qvidem 
censetis, nisi imbecilli essent, futuros beneficos et benignos 
fuisse? (Id. N. D. I. 44). Clodius insidias fecit Miloni? (Id. pro 
Mil. 22). Rogas? (Id. ib. 22), Can you ask? Infelix est Fabri- 

1 The first-mentioned use of qvod is traced in a similar manner. 



§451 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 409 

cius, qvod rus suum fodit? (Sen. de Prov. 3). Qvid? non sciunt 
ipsi viam, domum qva redeant? (Ter. Hec. III. 2, 25). Non pu- 
det philosophum in eo gloriari, qvod haec non timeat? (Cic. Tusc. 
I. 21). 

A single dependent question (not disjunctive) must always be 
distinguished by an interrogative particle. 1 

§ 451. The particles which serve to designate a single question 
are ne (attached to the end of a word), num (numne, numnain, 
numqvid, ecqvid), with a negative nonne (si, ivkether). (Con- 
cerning an and utrum see under the head of the disjunctive ques- 
tion, §§ 452, 453.) 

a. Ne, when affixed to a verb, denotes a question in general, without 
any accessory signification (affirmative or negative) : Venitne pater? 
Yet it sometimes implies (in direct questions) an affirmation, so that 
it has nearly the same force as nonne : Videmusne (videsne), ut 
pueri ne verberibus qvidem a contemplandis rebus perqvirendis- 
qve deterreantur ? (Cic. Finn. V. 18). Estne Sthenius is, qvi 
omnes honores domi suae magnificentissime gessit? (Id. Verr. II. 
46). If, on the other hand, ne is attached to another word than the 
verb, its effect is to express surprise, sometimes a doubt : Apollinemne 
tu Delium spoliare ausus es? Illine tu templo tarn sancto manus 
impias afferre conatus es ? (Cic. Verr. I. 18). (It rarely has this 
force with a verb : Potestne, Crasse, virtus servire ? Id. de Or. I. 
52). In dependent questions, this accessory signification is lost sight 
of, and it is rendered in English by whether : Qvaero de Regillo 
Lepidi filio, rectene meminerim, patre vivo mortuum, Cic. ad Art. 
XII. 24.) 2 

b. Num, in direct questions, almost always implies that a negative reply 
is expected ; in dependent propositions, it only asks the question (ivhether) . 
The doubt is expressed somewhat more strongly by numne (with the 
addition of the enclitic ne) : Num negare audes ? (Cic. in Cat. I. 4). 
Num facti Pamphilum piget ? Num ejus color pudoris signum 
usqvam indicat? (Ter. Andr. V. 3, 6). Numne, si Coriolanus 
habuit amicos, ferre contra patriam arma illi cum Coriolano debu- 
erunt ? Num Viscellinum amici regnum appetentem debuerunt 
adjuvare ? (Cic. Lael. 11). (Num qvid vis? Have you any com- 
mands? without a negative signification.) Legati speculari jussi sunt, 



1 The following is a direct question : Die mini : Lysippus eodem aere, eadem 
temperatione, ceteris omnibus centum Alexandros ejusdemmodi facere 
non posset (Cic. Acad. II. 26) : Tell me ; could not Lysippus — ? 

2 Ain' tu ? Ain' vero ? Do you say so ? Wliat do you say ? 



410 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 451 

num sollicitati animi sociorum a rege Perseo essent (Liv. XLII. 
19) . The simple interrogative phrase is strengthened by the addition 
of qvid (in the accusative, according to § 229, 6) : Numqvid duas 
habetis patrias? (Cic. Legg. II. 2). Scire velim, numqvid ne- 
cesse sit esse Romae (Id. ad Att. XII. 8). The same is expressed, in 
familiar language, by numnam (as in qvisnam, numqvisnam) . 

Obs. Ecqvid also stands as a mere interrogative particle, when we 
draw a person's attention to something: Qvid est, Catilina? Ecqvid 
attendis ? Ecqvid animadvertis horum silentium ? (Cic. in Cat. 
I. 8) . (Qvid venis ? Why do you come ?) 

c. Nonne expresses a question to which an affirmative answer is 
expected, an appeal being made to that which the person addressed must 
admit and acknowledge : Qvid ? canis nonne similis lupo ? (Cic. 
ET. D. I. 35). Si qvi rex, si qva natio fecisset aliqvid in civem 
Romanum ejusmodi, nonne publice vindicaremus ? non bello 
perseqveremur ? (Id. Verr. V. 58). (In this way, where there are 
repetitions, nonne often stands only in the first clause) : Qvaesitum 
ex Socrate est, Archelaum, Perdiccae filium, nonne beatum puta- 
ret (Cic. Tusc. V. 12). 

Obs. By a question with nonne, a certainty is expressed, that a thing 
is so, by a question with non (see above) surprise, that a thing is not so 
(does not take place) , and a doubt of the possibility of its being denied : 
Nonne meministi, qvid paullo ante dixerim? {Do you not remem- 
ber*? You remember, surely, .) Tu hoc non vides? {Do you 

really not see this ?) Yet nonne is sometimes found where we should 
expect simply non. 

d. Si sometimes stands in dependent questions, in the signification 
whether : Visam, si domi est (Ter. Heaut. I. 1, 118; with the indica- 
tive instead of the subjunctive) . Philopoemen qvaesivit, si Lycor- 
tas incolumis evasisset (Liv. XXXIX. 50). Yet this is rare in 
prose, except with exspecto, and with verbs which designate an attempt 
(experior, tento, conor), after which it is the conjunction commonly 
used : Ser. Sulpicius non recusavit, qvominus vel extremo spiritu, 
si qvam opem reipublicae ferre posset, experiretur (Cic. Phil. IX. 
1) . Tentata res est, si primo impetu capi Ardea posset (Liv. I. 
57) . From this it comes that even where no such verb has preceded, si 
is put with the subjunctive of possum (volo) following, to express a 
design and an attempt {whether perhaps, to try whether perhaps) : Hos- 
tes circumfunduntur ex omnibus partibus, si qvem aditum repe- 
rire possint (Caes. B. G. VI. 37) Hannibal etiam de industria 
Fabium irritat, si forte accensum tot cladibus sociorum detrahere 
ad aeqvum certamen possit (Liv. XXII. 13). 



§ 452 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 411 

§ 452. In a disjunctive question, by which we ask which of 
two (or more) opposed members is affirmed or denied, the first 
member is distinguished by utrum or ne; yet this sign may be 
omitted (especially where the antithesis is short and obvious), and 
the question expressed solely by the tone. The second (and re- 
maining) members are distinguished by an (anne), or (especially 
in dependent questions, the first member of which has no such sign) 
by ne. 

(Ne — ne is rare, and found chiefly in the poets : utrum — ne, very 
rare.) Or not is expressed by annon or necne. Utrum nescis, qvam 
alte ascenderis, an id pro nihilo habes ? (Cic. ad *Fam. X. 26). 
Utrum Milonis corporis an Pythagorae tibi malis vires ingenii 
dari? (Id. Cat. M. 10). Permultum interest, utrum perturbatione 
aliqva animi an consulto fiat injuria (Id. Off. I. 8). Utrum hoc tu 
parum meministi, an ego non satis intellexi, an mutasti senten- 
tiam ? (Id. ad Att. IX. 2) . Vosne L. Domitium an vos L. Domitius 
deseruit? (Cses. B. C. II. 32). Qvaeritur, virtus suamne propter 
dignitatem an propter fructus aliqvos expetatur (Cic. de Or. III. 
29). Sortietur an non? (Id. Prov. Cons. 15). Deliberabatur de 
Avarico, incendi placeret an defendi (Cses. B. G. VII. 15). Refert, 
qvi audiant orationem, senatus an populus an judices (Cic. de Or. 
m. 55). In incerto erat, vicissent victine essent (Liv. V. 28). 
Nihil interesse putant valeamus aegrine simus (Cic. Finn. IV. 
25). Qvi teneant oras, hominesne feraene, qvaerere constituit 
(Virg. iEn. I. 308). Dicamne huic, an non dicam ? (Ter. Eun. V. 
4, 46). Qvaeritur, Corinthiis bellum indicamus an non (Cic. Inv. 
I. 12). Sunt haec tua verba necne? (Id. Tusc. III. 18). Utrum 
vultis patri Flacco licuisse istam pecuniam capere necne ? (Id. 
pro Flacc. 25). Dii utrum sint, necne sint, qvaeritur (Id. N. D. 
III. 7). Demus beneficium, necne, in nostra est potestate (Id. 
Off. I. 15). 

Obs. 1. Utrum (from uter, which of two) shows at once the number 
of alternatives (but is also used when there are more than two mem- 
bers) . It is strengthened by affixing ne to the nearest word which the 
question emphasizes : Est etiam ilia distinctio, utrum illudne non 
videatur aegre ferendum, ex qvo suscepta sit aegritudo, an om- 
nium rerum tollenda omnino aegritudo (Cic. Tusc. IV. 27). In the 
poets, we also find utrumne in one word. 

Obs. 2. From this we must distinguish utrum as a pronoun, with 
which the two members following with ne — an are in apposition : 
Aeqvum Scipio dicebat esse Siculos cogitare, utrum esset illis 
utilius, suisne servire, an populo Romano obtemperare (Cic. Verr. 



412 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 453 

IV. 33) . (Utrum, employed in a simple question, instead of num, is a 
very rare irregularity.) 

§ 453. An stands not only in the second member of a disjunctive 
question, but also in such simple questions as are used to complete 
and emphasize what immediately precedes ; when it is asked what 
must be the case otherwise (i.e. if there is some objection to be made 
to what goes before) ; or, what must be the case then (i.e. if some 
idea involved in what goes before is confirmed), or when a question 
is itself answered under the form of a question, or some conjecture 
respecting what is asked is added in the interrogative form (in 
which case an sometimes takes the meaning of nonne) : — 

Epicurus voluptatem sensus titillantem nimis etiam 1 novit, 
qvippe qvi testificetur, ne intelligere qvidem se posse, ubi sit aut 
qvod sit ullum bonum praeter ilhid, qvod sensibus et corpore 
capiatur. An haec ab eo non dicuntur ? (Cic. Finn. II. 3), Or does 
Tie not say this ? Qvasi non necesse sit, qvod isto modo pronun- 
ties, id aut esse aut non esse. An tu dialecticis ne imbutus qvi- 
dem es ? (Id. Tusc. I. 7), Or have you not learned even the first principles 
of dialectics ? Sed ad haec, nisi molestum est, habeo, qvae velim. 
An me, inqvam, nisi te audire vellem, censes haec dicturum 

fuisse ? (Id. Finn. I. 8) , Do you, then, believe that ? Qvid ais ? 

an venit Pamphilus ? (Ter. Hec. III. 2, 11), What say you? is Pam- 
philus come ? Qvid dicis ? an bello fugitivorum Siciliam virtute 
tua liberatam ? (Cic. Verr. V. 2) . Qvando autem ista vis evanuit? 
an postqvam homines minus creduli esse coeperunt ? (ivas it not 
from the time when ? Id. Div. II. 57) .' The signification or°l is strengthened 
by vero : An vero dubitamus, qvo ore Verres ceteros homines 
inferiore loco solitus sit appellare, qvi ob jus dicendum M. Octa- 
vium poscere pecuniam non dubitarit? (Cic. Verr. I. 48), Or can 
we doubt ? 

A double question, which involves an inference, § 438, is often so con- 
nected by an or an vero. In other simple questions an is not used, ex- 
cept in the later writers and the poets in dependent questions ; e.g. 
Reges dicuntur torqvere mero, qvem perspexisse laborant, an sit 
amicitia dignus (Hor. A. P. 436). l Qvaeritur, an providentia 
mundus regatur (Qvinct. III. 5, 6). From this, however, we must 
except the usage of an in the signification whether not (ichether not per- 
haps, inclining to an affirmation) after haud scio, nescio, dubito, du- 

1 Numqvid duas habetis patrias? an est una iUa patria communis ? (Cic. 
Legg. II. 2 ; not disjunctive, but first a simple question : have you perhaps — ? and then it is 
added : is not rather — ?) 



§454 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 413 

bium, incertum, est, and sometimes after other expressions which denote 
uncertainty (delibero, haesito) : Qvae fuit unqvam in ullo homine 
tanta constantia ? Constantiam dico ? Nescio an melius patien- 
tiam possim dicere (Cic. pro Lig. 9) . Aristotelem excepto Platone 
baud scio an recte dixerim principem philosophorum (Id. Finn. V. 
3) . Est id qvidem magnum atqve haud scio an maximum (Id. ad 
Fam. IX. 15). Dubito an Venusiam tendam et ibi exspectem de 
legionibus (Id. ad Att. XVI. 5) . Moriendum certe est, et id incer- 
tum, an hoc ipso die (Id. Cat. M. 20). Qvi scis, an prudens hue se 
projecerit? (Hor. A. P. 462), how do you know whether he has not 
perhaps — ? The expressions haud scio an, nescio an, acquire therefore 
the signification perhaps, and denote a suspicion that a thing is. A 
doubt whether a thing is, is expressed by the addition of negatives : 
Contigit tibi, qvod haud scio an nemini (Cic. ad Fam. IX. 14). 
Hoc dijudicari nescio an nunqvam, sed hoc sermone certo non 
potest (Id. Legg. I. 21). Atqve haud sciam an ne opus qvidem 
sit, nihil unqvam deesse amicis (Id. Lsel. 14), whether it is on the 
whole even to be wished. 2 Anne (with the enclitic ne) is not often used, 
aud in prose only in the second part of a double question : Interrogatur, 
tria pauca sint, anne multa (Cic. Acad. II. 29). 

Obs. 1. An is sometimes used without an express question, to denote 
an uncertainty and wavering between two conceptions (or perhaps, it is 
uncertain lohether — or) : Themistocles, qvum ei Simonides an qvis 
alius artem memoriae polliceretur, Oblivionis, inqvit, mallem (Cic. 
Finn. II. 32) . Ea suspicio, vitio orationis an rei, haud sane pur- 
gata est (Liv. XXVIII. 43) = incertum, vitio orationis an rei. 

Obs. 2. From disjunctive questions we must carefully distinguish ques- 
tions concerning two (or more) different but not opposed members, con- 
nected by aut, to both (or all) of which an answer in the negative is 
anticipated : Qvid ergo ? solem dicam aut lunam aut coelum deum ? 
(Cic. N. D. I. 30). Num me igitur fefellit? aut num Antonius 
diutius sui potuit esse dissimilis ? (Id. Phil. II. 36). 

§ 454. An answer is expressed affirmatively by etiam, ita, yes ; 
or (with emphatic affirmation) by vero (rarely verum), yes, cer- 
tainly ; sane (sane qvidem), yes indeed, yes ivillingly ; or by merely 
repeating the verb with which the question is expressed. We may 
also combine the verb with vero, or vero and a pronoun, which 
denotes the subject in the question. A negative answer is ex- 



1 The poets occasionally employ even an — an in a disjunctive interrogation : Yirg. iEn. X. 
680 ; Ov. Met. X. 254. 

2 K"escio an is used in later writers, without thus approximating to an assertion: Nes- 
cio an noris hominem, qvamqvam nosse debes (Plin. Ep. VI. 21). 



414 LATIN GRAMMAR. §455 

pressed by non, minime (emphatically by minime vero). An 
answer conveying a correction (no, on the other hand; much rather) 
is indicated by imo (imo vero) : — 

Aut etiam aut non respondere (Cic. Acad. II. 32) . Dices, habeo 
hie, qvos legam, non minus disertos. Etiam ; sed legendi semper 
occasio est, audiendi non semper (Plin. Ep. II. 3). — Qvidnam ? 
inqvit Catulus ; an laudationes ? Ita, inqvit Antonius (Cic. de Or. 
II. 10. Ita vero; ita est; ita prorsus). — Fuisti saepe, credo, qvum 
Athenis esses, in scholis philosophorum. Vero, ac libenter qvidem 
(Id. Tusc. II. 11). Facies ? Verum (Ter. Heaut. V. 3, 11). Visne 
locum mutemus et in insula ista sermoni reliqvo demus operam 
sedentes? Sane qvidem (Cic. Legg. II. 1). — Fierine potest? 
Potest. Qvaesivi, fierine posset. Ille posse respondit. — Dasne, 
aut manere animos post mortem aut morte ipsa interire ? Do vero 
(Cic. Tusc. I. 11). Qvaero, si haec emptoribus venditor nondixerit 
aedesqve vendiderit pluris multo, qvam se venditurum putarit, 
num injuste fecerit? Ille vero, inqvit Antipater (Id. Off. III. 13). 

— Cognatus aliqvis fuit aut propinqvus? Non (Id. Verr. II. 43. 
Non fuit). Num igitur peccamus ? Minime vos qvidem (Cic. ad 
Att. VIII. 9) . An tu haec non credis (Do you then not believe this ?) 
Minime vero (Id. Tusc. I. 6). (Non faciam, no, that I will not do.) 

— Causa igitur non bona est? Imo optima (Id. ad Att. IX. 7). 
Qvid ? si patriam prodere conabitur pater, silebitne filius ? Imo 
vero obsecrabit patrem, ne id faciat (Id. Off. III. 23). Vivit? 
Imo vero etiam in senatum venit (Id. in Cat. LI). 

Obs. 1. Since vero only gives emphasis, it may also be employed in 
propositions, which assure us of the negative of a thing that has been 
doubted, where it may be translated by no : Ego vero tibi non 
irascor, mi frater (no, I am not angry ivith you) . 

Obs. 2. Where the motive or explanation of an affirmation or denial 
is immediately subjoined with enim, the affirmation or denial is often not 
expressed by any specific word: Turn Antonius, Heri enim, inqvit, 
hoc mini proposiieram, ut hos abs te discipulos abducerem (Cic. 
de Or. II. 10), yes, for — . (Siqvidem — , yes, if — .) 

§ 455. Negative Particles. The usual word by which a 
thing is stated negatively is non, not Haud, not, originally signi- 
fies a negation somewhat less definite, yet there is often no distinc- 
tion to be observed in the meaning; but in good prose haud is 
commonly not used with verbs (except in the expression haud scio 
an), but only with adjectives and adverbs (e.g. haud mediocris, 
haud spernendus, haud procul, haud sane, haud dubie, certainly. 



§456 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 415 

doubtless), and in some of the best writers (Cicero, Caesar) it is 
rarely met with even in this combination ; in other authors it occurs 
more frequently. Scarcely, almost not, is expressed by vix. 

Obs. 1. Where the negation is opposed to an affirmation, haud is not 
used even with adverbs ; we can only say, non tarn — qvam, non modo 
— sed, non qvo — sed. 

Obs. 2. Neqvaqvam, by no means; neutiqvam, in no wise (rare in 
prose) ; haudqvaqvam, by no means (homo prudens et gravis, haud- 
qvaqvam eloqvens, Cic. de Or. I. 9) . 

Obs. 3. Non, in connection with a verb, often signifies to omit to; 
Hence comes the expression non possum with non and an infinitive ; 
I cannot omit to, I cannot do otherwise than ( = facere non possum, 
qvin) : Non potui non dare litteras ad Caesarem (Cic. ad Att. 
Yin. 2) . Non poteram in illius patriae custodis tanta suspicione 
non metu exanimari (Id. pro Mil. 24). Tuum consilium nemo 
potest non maxime laudare (Id. ad Fam. IV. 7) . 

Obs. 4. Nihil (nothing), in no respect, in no wise (§ 229 b), is some- 
times put with verbs in the place of non : Ea species nihil terruit 
eqvos (Liv. IV. 33), struck no terror into the horses. Do vita beata 
nihil repugno (Cic. "N. D. I. 24). Nihil necesse est ad omnes tuas 
litteras rescribere (Id. ad Att. VII. 2). This is rarely done with 
adjectives : Plebs Ardeatium. nihil Romanae plebi similis, in agros 
optimatium excursiones facit (Liv. IV. 9). (Nonnihil molesta 
haec sunt mini, Ter. Ad. I. 2, 62). 

Obs. 5. In familiar speaking and writing, and in imitations of the same, 
nullus is sometimes used, in apposition to the subject, instead of non, 
occasionally with an intensive signification (not at all) : Sextus ab 
armis nullus discedit (Cic. ad Att. XV. 22). Haec bona in tabulas 
publicas nulla redierunt (Cic. Rose. Am. 44), were not entered at all. 
Multa possunt videri esse, qvae omnino nulla sunt (Id. Acad. II. 
15), do not exist at all. (On the other hand, we have always industria 
non mediocris, no small industry, if the negation applies to the adjec- 
tive; but nemo magnus homo, nulla magna virtus invidiam 
effugit.) 

§ 456. A negation which denotes a will, wish, or design, is ex- 
pressed by ne. Ne is consequently used in wishes (with the sub- 
junctive, § 351), in exhortations to assume a thing (§ 352), in 
prohibitions and warnings (in the imperative or subjunctive, § 386), 
in object-clauses after verbs which denote an activity or an effort 
and wish (§ 372, b, and § 375), and in propositions denoting a pur- 
pose (§ 355) ; while, on the contrary, ut non is employed in proposi- 



416 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 457 

tions expressing a result, and in those object-clauses which are 
treated of in §§ 373 and 374. In object-clauses after verbs denot- 
ing a wish and effort (§ 372, but not after such as denote an agency 
employed in hindering a thing, § 375) and in propositions denoting 
a purpose, ut — ne is often employed instead of ne, by which is ex- 
pressed first of all the object or design in general, and afterwards 
the negation : — 

Trebatio mandavi, ut, si tu eum velles ad me mittere, ne re- 
cusaret (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 1). Sed ut hie, qvi intervenit, ne 
ignoret, qvae res agatur, de natura agebamus deorum (Id. N. D. 
1.7). 

When the negation in a final proposition or object-clause is ex- 
pressed in English by a negative pronoun or pronominal adverb 
(that none, &c.) the negation is expressed in Latin by the particle, 
which is followed by an affirmative pronoun (ne qvis, qvid, ullus, 
necubi, neqvando) : — 

Edictum est, ne qvis injussu consulis castris egrederetur. Also 
in prohibitions, ne qvis faciat, ne qvid feceris, is more frequent than 
nemo faciat, nihil feceris (especially in the language of the law) . 

Obs. 1. Ne is the shortest form of the negative particle. It is seen 
in ne — qvidem, in neqve, nescio, &c. 

Obs. 2. In some passages, chiefly in the poets, non is found instead 
of ne with the subjunctive to express a prohibition or a summons ; e.g. 
Non sint sine lege capilli (Ov. A. A. III. 133). 

Obs. 3. In object-clauses after verbs which signify to bring to 
pass, to effect, especially after facio and efficio, ut non is also made 
use of (ut nemo, nihil, nusqvam, &c). Ex hoc efiicitur, non ut 
voluptas ne sit voluptas, sed ut voluptas non sit summum bonum 
(Cic. Finn. II. 8) . In like manner non without ut is used after velim, 
vellem (§ 350, b, Obs. 1) : Vellem tua te occupatio non impe- 
disset (Id. ad Att. III. 22). 

Obs. 4. Ut ne (occasionally ne), signifying so that, is used when pre- 
caution, forethought, or restriction is to be indicated, especially with ita 
preceding: Minucius sciebat, ita se rem augere oportere, ut ne 
qvid de libertate deperderet (Cic. Verr. II. 30) . Danda opera est 
ut etiam singulis consulatur, sed ita, ut ea res aut prosit aut certe 
ne obsit reipublicae (Id. Off. II. 21) . (Ita admissi sunt in urbem, 
ne tamen iis senatus daretur, Liv. XXII. 61.) 

§ 457. Ne — qvidem (separated by the emphatic and antithetical 
word) signifies also not (as little as the preceding, or as any thing 
else) : — 



§ 458 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 417 

Postero die Curio milites in acie collocat. Ne Varus qvi- 
dem dubitat copias producere (Caes. B. C. II. 33). Si non 
sunt (in case they do not exist) , nihil possunt esse ; ita ne miseri 
qvidem sunt (Cic. Tusc. I. 6). It most frequently gives prominence 
to the object of the negation, and signifies not even : Ne matri qvidem 
dixi. Ne cum Caesare qvidem egi. Ac ne illud qvidem vobis ne- 
gligendum puto, qvod mini ego extremum proposueram (Cic. pro 
Leg. Man. 7 ; also et ne — qvidem). 

A short subordinate proposition, or a conjunction and the most 
important word of the subordinate proposition, often stand between 
ne and qvidem : — 

Ne qvantum possumus qvidem cogimur (Cic. Cat. M. 11). Ne- 
qve contra rempublicam neqve contra jusjurandum ac fidem 
amici causa vir bonus faciet, ne si judex qvidem erit de ipso 
amico (Id. Off. III. 10). 

Obs. The later writers (from and after Livy and Ovid) put nee in the 
same signification as ne — qvidem: Non inutilem puto hanc cogni- 
tionem; alioqvinec tradidissem (Qvinct. V. 10, 119). Esse aliqvid 
manes et subterranea regna, nee pueri credunt (Juv. II. 152) . 

§ 458. a. A negation connected with a copulative particle (and 
not) is usually expressed by neqve, nee (which is therefore a nega- 
tive conjunction, not a mere adverb) : — 

Caesar substitit neqve hostes lacessivit. De Qvinto fratre 
nuntii tristes nobis nee varii venerant (Cic. ad Att. III. 17) . 

Where a negative pronoun or pronominal adverb follows a copu- 
lative particle in English (and no one, and no where, and never), it 
is expressed in Latin by neqve with an affirmative pronoun or ad- 
verb (neqve qvisqvam, qvidqvam, ullus, usqvam, unqvam). 

Horae cedunt et dies et menses et anni, nee praeteritum tem- 
pus unqvam revertitur (Cic. Cat. M. 19). 

Obs. 1. Sometimes, however, et non is employed, when the negation 
is blended, as it were, into one idea with some particular word following, 
and the whole treated as coordinate with what goes before: Patior, judi- 
ces, et non moleste fero (Cic. Verr. I. 1 ; here non qualifies moleste, 
and the whole expression of satisfaction, non moleste fero, is connected 
by et with patior). Demetrius Syrus, vetus et non ignobilis di- 
cendi magister (Id. Brut. 91). Habebit igitur lingvam deus et 
non loqvetur (Id. N. D. I. 33), and ivill yet be dumb. In the same 
way, et nemo, et nullus, &c, nullusqve, nihilqve, <£c, are also 
used: Domus temere et nullo consilio administratur (Cic. Inv. 

27 



418 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 458 

I. 31). Nihil hominem, nisi qvod honestum decorumqve est, 
aut admirari aut optare oportet, nulliqve neqve homini neqve 
fortunae succumbere (Id. Off. I. 20). Eo simus animo ut mori- 
endi diem nobis faustum putemus nihilqve in malis ducamus 
qvod sit a diis constitutum (Id. Tusc. I. 49). Ac non, et 
non, are particularly employed in the signification and not rather 
(when a correction is subjoined to a conditional, interrogative, or 
ironical expression) : Nam si qvam Rubrius injuriam suo no- 
mine ac non impulsu tuo fecisset, de tui comitis injuria qves- 
tum ad te venissent (Cic. Verr. I. 31). Qvasi vero isti, qvos 
commemoras, propterea magistratus ceperint, qvod triumpharant, 
et non, qvia commissi sunt iis magistratus, re bene gesta trium- 
pharint (Id. pro Plane. 25). C. Antonius, tanqvam extruderetur 
a senatu in Macedoniam ac non contra prohiberetur proficisci, cu- 
currit (Id. Phil. X. 5). (Where, on the contrary, an erroneous opinion 
negatived is placed in contrast with that which is correct, it is usual to 
employ non — not et non, or sed non : Haec morum vitia sunt, non 
senectutis (Cic. Cat. M. 18). 

Obs. 2. Sometimes even the copulative particle, which connects a 
second independent proposition with a preceding one, has combined with 
it the negative, which properly belongs to a clause subordinate to that 
second proposition : Consules in Hernicos exercitum duxerunt, ne- 
qve inventis in agro hostibus, Ferentinum, urbem eorum, vi cepe- 
runt (Liv. VII. 9) = et, qvum hostes in agro non invenissent, urbem 

. Hostes deustos pluteos turrium videbant, nee facile adire 

apertos ad auxiliandum animadvertebant (Cses. B. G. VII. 25) = 

et animadvertebant, non facile , (The poets even allow the et 

which belongs to ait or inqvit to coalesce with a negative belonging to 
the words quoted: Neqve, ait, sine numine vincit, Ov. Met. XI. 
263, = et ait, Non sine n. v.) 

b. Neqve is used instead of a simple non, when a negative prop- 
osition is connected by enim, tamen, vero (neqve enim, for not ; 
neqve tamen, yet hot, and yet not; neqve vero, but not, and not, 
also not). Yet we sometimes find non enim, rarely non tamen, 
by which the negation acquires greater emphasis. (Nam — non 
only when the negative is intimately connected with a word follow- 
ing. Neqve enim — neqve, and nam neqve — neqve.) 

c. The combination of two or more negative members into one 
unity is denoted by neqve — neqve (nee — nee, neqve — nee, nee 
— neqve), neither — nor; e.g. neqve bonus neqve malus ; neqve 
consilium mihi placet neqve auctor probatur. The second mem- 
ber may be made more prominent by the addition of vero : — 



§458 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 419 

Secundum genus cupiditatum Epicurus nee ad potiendum 
difficile esse censet nee vero ad carendum (Cic. Tusc. V. 33). 

The combination of an affirmative and negative member is de- 
noted by et — neqve, both — and not ; neqve — et, both not — and 
(less frequently neqve — qve) : — 

Intelligitis, Fompejo et animum praesto fuisse neqve consilium 
defuisse (Cic. Phil. XIII. 6). Patebat via et certa nee longa (Id. 
ib. XI. 2). Voluptates agricolarum nee ulla impediuntur senec- 
tute et mini ad sapientis vitam proxime videntur accedere (Id. 
Cat. M. 15). Homo nee meo judicio stultus et suo valde pru- 
dens (Id. de Or. I. 39) . (Ex qvo intelligitur, nee intemperantiam 
propter se esse fugiendam temperantiamqve expetendam, non 
qvia voluptates fugiat, sed qvia majores conseqvatur, Id. Finn. 
I. 14.) 

Obs. 1. Instead of et — ne, we may employ et — et non, when the 
non (as in a, Obs. 1) is intimately combined with a word following, so 
as to form one idea with it : Manlius et semper me coluit diligen- 
tissime et a nostris studiis non abhorret (Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 22). 
Assentior tibi, et multum facetias in dicendo prodesse saepe et 
eas arte nullo modo posse tradi (Id. de Or. II. 56). Multa alio- 
rum judicio et facienda et non facienda nobis sunt (Id. Off. I. 41), 
when neqve could, by no means, be used. 

Obs. 2. If a negative (non, neqve, and not, or a negative pronoun, 
or nego, nolo) belongs to two connected words, and stands before 
them both, these are often themselves connected by a negative, so that 
the negative is repeated: Non enim solum acuenda nobis neqve 
procudenda lingva est, sed complendum pectus maximarum re- 
rum copia et varietate (Cic. de Or. 30), in English, we must not only 
whet and sharpen the tongue. Minora dii negligunt nee agellos sin- 
gulorum nee viticulas perseqvuntur (Id. N. D. III. 35), and 
do not mind the fields and vines of individuals. Agrum in his 
regionibus meliorem neqve pretii majoris nemo habet (Ter. 
Heaut. I. 1, 12). In this example, by a rare exception, the common 
negative is near the end of the sentence. In prose, the connection 
by a copulative particle is used only when the ideas are completely 
blended : Nulla res tanta ac tarn dimcilis est, qvam Q. Catulus 
non consilio regere possit (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 20). Nee tan- 
tum moerorem ac luctum senatui mors P. Clodii afferebat, ut nova 
qvaestio constitueretur (Id. pro Mil. 5). (The poets are more free; 
yet it is very unusual for a new proposition, which the negative should 
also qualify, to be connected by et or qve.) On the other hand, 
the second member may be connected by aut or ve : Neqve enim mari 



420 LATIN GRAMMAR. §460 

venturum aut ea parte virium dimicaturum hostem credebant 
(Liv. XXI. 17). Non recito ubivis coramve qvibuslibet (Hor. 
Sat. I. 4, 73) . (Also nee — nee — aut : Eqvites hostibus neqve sui 
colligendi neqve consistendi aut ex essedis desiliendi facultatem 
dederunt, Cses. B. G. V. 17.) But the addition of a second propo- 
sition, which is also negative by a simple aut, is rare, and poetical : Nee 
te nine comitem asportare Creusam fas (est) aut ille sinit superi 
regnator Olympi (Virg. iEn. II. 778) . Aut — aut also follows after a 
negative : Ante id tempus nemo aut miles aut eqves a Caesare ad 
Pompejum transierat (Cses.. B. C. III. 61). Consciorum nemo aut 
latuit aut fugit (Liv. XXIV. 5). Nondum aut pulsus remorum 
strepitusqve alius nauticus exaudiebatur aut promontoria classem 
aperiebant (Id. XXII. 19). 

§ 459. For et ne or aut, following ne, neve and neu are made 
use of: — 

Hominem mortuum in urbe neve sepelito neve urito (Cic. 
Legg. II. 23). Opera dabatur, ne qvod iis colloqvium inter se 
neve qvae communicatio consilii esset (Liv. XXIII. 34). Caesar 
milites cohortatus est, uti suae pristinae virtutis memoriam re- 
tinerent neu perturbarentur animo (Cses. B. G. II. 21). 

Neve — neve repeated (like neqve — neqve) is used in prohibi- 
tions (it is, however, of rare occurrence) : — 

Neve tibi ad solem vergant vineta cadentem neve inter vites 
corulum sere (Virg. G. II. 298) ; and in dependent propositions with 
ut preceding (ut neve — neve) : Peto a te, ut id neve in hoc reo 
neve in aliis reqviras (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9). 

Obs. We find, however, solitary examples of nee, instead of neve : 
Teneamus eum cursum, qvi semper fuit optimi cujusqve, neqve 
ea signa audiamus, qvae receptui canunt (Cic. R. P. I. 2) . Nee 
hoc pertimueris (Cic). Haec igitur lex in amicitia sanciatur, ut 
neqve rogemus res turpes neqve faciamus rogati (Id. Lael. 12). In 
the poets, neve is also used instead of et ne, in such a way that the 
et belongs to another proposition (as in the case of neqve, § 458, a, 
Obs. 2) : Neve foret terris securior arduus aether, affectasse ferunt 
regnum caeleste Gigantas (Ov. Met. I. 151) . 

§ 460. Two negatives coming together do away with the nega- 
tive signification. If the negative particle be placed immediately 
before a negative word, the universal negation alone is set aside, 
and there results an indefinite affirmation : thus, nonnemo, not no 
one = some one, some few ; nonnullus, nonnihil, nonnunqvam, 



§460 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 421 

sometimes. If, on the other hand, non belongs to a predicate, and 
this (negative) predicate is asserted of a negative subject, there 
results a universal affirmation ; no one does it not (omits to do it) = 
all without exception do it: so nemo non, nullus non, all; nihil 
non, every thing ; numqvam non, always; nusqvam non, every- 
where. 

Nemo Arpinas non Plancio studuit (Cic. pro Plane. 9). Nulli 
non ad nocendum satis virium est (Sen. Ep. 105). Achilles nihil 
non arroget armis (Hor. A. P. 122), let Achilles claim everything. 
(Concerning non possum non, see § 455, Obs. 3.) 

Obs. 1. The particles nee non do not stand together in good prose 
simply as a substitute for et, or as a connective between two single 
words ; but they are used to carry on the idea, by adding, that a certain 
other thing cannot (can also not) be denied : Nee hoc Zeno non vidit, 
sed verborum magnificentia est delectatus (Cic. Finn. IV. 22), and 
this also did not escape the observation of Zeno, but — . Neqve vero 
non omni supplicio digni P. Claudius, L. Junius consules, qvi 
contra auspicia navigarunt (Cic. Div. II. 33), and therefore the consuls 
P. 0. and L. J. cannot but be deserving of the severest punishment. Nee 
enim is, qvi in te adhuc injustior, qvam tua dignitas postulabat, 
fuit, non magna signa dedit animi erga te mitigati (Id. ad Fam. VI. 
1); Inferior writers and the poets use nee non also in immediate jux- 
taposition (Nee non et Tyrii — convenere, Virg. iEn. I. 707) and for 
the connection of two single words (and also) . 

Obs. 2. Two negatives do not destroy one another, if either (a) a prop- 
osition begins with a general negation, and a single idea is then brought 
prominently forward by ne — qvidem, or if (6) a general negation pre- 
cedes, and is then repeated distributively with the single terms : Non 
enim praetereundum est ne id qvidem (Cic. Verr. I. 60). Epi- 
curus, qvid praeter voluptatem sit bonum, negat se posse ne sus- 
picari qvidem (Id. Fin. II. 10). Sic habeas, nihil mehercule te 
mini nee carius esse nee svavius (Id. ad Att. V. 1 ; this might also 
have been expressed according to § 458, c, Obs. 2, aut carius aut 
svavius). Nemo unqvam neqve poeta neqve orator fuit, qvi 
qvenqvam meliorem qvam se putaret (Id. ib. XIV. 20). Non me 
carminibus vincet nee Thracius Orpheus nee Linus (Yirg. B. IV. 
55). (Ea nesciebant, nee ubi, nee qvalia essent, Cic. Tusc. III. 2.) 1 
(Nolebant successum non patribus, non consulibus, Liv. II. 45.) 



1 The comic writers in some few instances use neqve haud in place of the simple 
neqve. 



422 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 461 

§ 461. a. The rising to something more important is indicated 
by non modo, non tantum (not only), non solum (not alone) — 
sed etiam, verum etiam. 

Obs. Modo properly denotes rather the degree, solum the extent, 
but no definite distinction is observed. Non tantum is not often used, 
except when the subject or the predicate is common to both clauses. 
Instead of sed etiam we find also simply sed, by which a more compre- 
hensive word, which at the same time comprises the preceding, is substi- 
tuted in its place : Pollio, omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum, sed 
praefuit (Cic. ad Fam. I. 6) ; but it is also used without this accessory 
signification. We rarely meet with sed — qvoqve, which denotes merely 
an addition, not a rising to something more important. The first member 
may also be negative : non modo (non solum) non — sed etiam (sed 
potius, sed) : Non modo non oppugnator, sed etiam defensor (Cic. 
pro Plane. 31). Hoc non modo non pro me est, sed contra me est 
potius (Id. de Or. III. 20). 

b. To rise to a more emphatic negative, and assert that even a 
thing which was sure to happen does not take place, non modo or 
non solum is combined with sed ne — qvidem, sed vix : — 

Vobis inter vos non modo voluntas conjuncta fuit, sed ne 
praeda qvidem adhuc divisa est (Cic. Div. in Caec. 11). In this 
case, non modo or non solum has usually another negative, either after 
it (a), so that non modo, non solum, qualifies an idea which is already 
negative (not only not, not only no one, &c), or before it (b), and 
therefore common to both clauses (nemo non modo, nihil non modo, 
&c. : No one, I will not say), so that, properly speaking, in the latter 
case, the negative is repeated in ne — qvidem : (a) Ego non modo 
tibi non irascor, sed ne reprehendo qvidem factum tuum (Cic. pro 
Sull. 18) . Non modo nihil acqvisiverunt, sed ne relictum qvidem 
et traditum et suum conservaverunt (Id. de Or. III. 32). Obscoe- 
nitas non solum non foro digna, sed vix convivio liberorum (Id. 
de Or. II. 62) . (b) Nihil iis Verres non modo de fructu, sed ne 
de bonis qvidem suis reliqvi fecit (Id. Yerr. III. 48). Nullum 
non modo illustre, sed ne notum qvidem factum (Id. in Pis. 1). 
Id ne unqvam posthac non modo confici, sed ne cogitari qvidem 
possit a civibus, hodierno die providendum est (Id. in Cat. IV. 9). 
If both clauses have a common predicate, to which the negative belongs, 
and the predicate stands in the last clause, the negation which lies in 
ne — qvidem (vix) may be applied to the whole, so that instead of 
non modo non (non solum non), we have, in the first clause, only 
non modo (non solum) : Assentatio non modo amico, sed ne 
libero qvidem digna est (Cic. Lael. 24) . Senatui non solum juvare 



§ 462 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 423 

rempublicam, sed ne lugere qvidem licuit (Id. in Pis. 10). Non 
modo manus tanti exercitus, sed ne vestigium qvidem cuiqvam 
privato nocuit (Id. pro Leg. Man. 13). (In the complete form: 
Nemini privato non modo manus t. e., sed ne vestigium qvidem 
nocuit.) Advena non modo civicae, sed ne Italicae qvidem stir- 
pis (Liv. I. 40) = qvi non modo — stirpis esset. Haec genera 
virtutum non solum in moribus nostris, sed vix jam in libris 
reperiuntur (Cic. pro Cash 17). But the complete form is also made 
use of: Hoc non modo non laudari, sed ne concedi qvidem potest 
(Cic. pro Mur. 3). Sthenius id potuit, qvod non modo Siculus 
nemo, sed ne Sicilia qvidem tota potuisset (Id. Verr. II. 46) . 

Obs. 1. In the same way, it is said : Hoc non modo recte fieri, sed 
omnino fieri non potest (Cic. Acad. II. 19). If each clause has its 
distinct predicate, non modo, sed ne — qvidem, instead of non modo 
non, is a very rare irregularity. 

Obs. 2. Non modo (not non solum) followed by sed (sed etiam, 
verum, verum etiam) is used with the meaning of the phrase I will 
not say (non dico, non dicam), when it is intended to show that the 
first clause comprises too much, and that we must abide by the second 
and more limited one : Qvae civitas est in Asia, qvae non modo 
imperatoris aut legati, sed unius tribuni militum animos ac spiri- 
tus capere possit? (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 22). Sine ulla non modo 
religione, verum etiam dissimulatione (Id. Yerr. V. 1). (Num 
exploratum cuiqvam esse potest, qvomodo sese habiturum sit 
corpus, non dico ad annum, sed ad vesperum ? Cic. Finn. II. 28) . 

Obs. 3. The leading clause may, for the sake of emphasis, stand be- 
fore non modo (non solum) to indicate that of which the assertion is 
first and chiefly true : Secundas etiam res nostras, non modo adver- 
sas, pertimescebam (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 14), and not only. If the 
leading assertion be negative (non, nullus, ne — qvidem), non modo 
indicates what is still more emphatically denied (much less, to say noth- 
ing of) : Nullum meum minimum dictum, non modo factum (Cic. 
ad Fam. I. 9). Apollinis oracula nunqvam ne mediocri qvidem 
cuiqvam, non modo prudenti, probata sunt (Cic. Div. II. 55). 

(Nedum, not to mention that . See § 355 ; then also without a verb, 

as an adverb : not to say = much less ; from the time of Livy, it occurs 
also without a negative preceding : not to say = much more.) 

§ 462. a. Of other particular negative expressions we may notice 
the following: non ita, not so very (non ita magnus, haud ita 
magnus) ; non item, not in the same way = on the other hand not 
(or simply not, in antithesis with the foregoing predicate under- 
stood : — 



424 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 462 

Corporum offensiones sine culpa accidere possuht, animorum 
non item, Cic. Tusc. IV. 14) ; nondum, not yet (neqvedum, and not 
yet, sometimes for nondum ; nullusdum, nihildum, vixdum ; also, 
nondum etiam) ; non jam, no more, no longer ; tantum non, modo 
non, almost (strictly, only this not, so that this one thing is wanting : 
tantum non ad portas et muros bellum est, Liv. XXY. 15) ; nihil 
admodum (admodum nihil) , as good as nothing. 

b. The words nemo (nihil) and ne, with some verbs which con- 
tain a negation in themselves (nolo, neseio, and particularly nego), 
are by an inaccuracy of expression sometimes put in such a way, 
that in an added (antithetical) clause only the affirmative idea con- 
tained in the words is understood (and they become equivalent to 
omnes, omnia, ut, volo, scio, dico) : 

Nemo extulit eum verbis, qvi ita dixisset, ut, qvi adessent, in- 
telligerent, qvid diceret, sed contempsit eum, qvi minus id facere 
potuisset (Cic. de Or. III. 14). Appius collegis in castra scribit, 
ne Virginio commeatum dent atqve etiam in custodia habeant 
(Liv. III. 46). Pleriqve negant Caesarem in custodia mansurum 
postulataqve haec ab eo interposita esse, qvominus, qvod opus 
esset ad bellum a nobis pararetur (Cic. ad Att. VII. 15) = say that 
Codsar will not keep his engagement, but . 



PART THIRD. 

ORDER AND POSITION OF WORDS AND PROPOSITIONS. 



CHAPTER I. 

OF THE ORDER OF THE WORDS IN A PROPOSITION. 

§ 463. Since in Latin the connection and construction of the 
words may easily be known from their inflection, their position is 
not determined by such strict and definite rules as is usually the 
case in English and other modern languages, but is regulated in a 
great measure by the emphasis which is laid on the individual words 
according to the sense of the passage, and sometimes also by a 
regard to euphony. 

Obs. The position of the words is therefore to be distinguished from 
their grammatical order, which is the order of their mutual relations. 
The latter is sometimes called the Construction, and the giving it is called 
construing the sentence. 

§ 464. The most simple arrangement of the words is this : that 
the subject, with what belongs to it, stands first, and the predicate 
follows afterwards, in such a way that the verb usually stands last, 
in order to keep the whole sentence together ; while the direct ob- 
ject and the remote object, or the predicate noun, with whatever 
else qualifies the verb (ablative, prepositions with cases, adverbs) 
are placed in the middle. Generally speaking, a governed and lim- 
iting word (with the exception of the genitive when depending on 
a substantive) is placed before the word which governs or is limited 
by it (gloriae cupidus, hostes perseqvi). Of those words which 
are. used to limit or qualify the predicate, that part stands first, 
which, according to the sense and design of the passage, is of the 
greatest importance, and is first thought of: — 



426 LATIN GRAMMAR. §465 

Romani Jovi templum in Capitolio condiderunt. Romani tem- 
plum in Capitolio Jovi, Junoni, Minervae condiderunt. Numa 
Pompilius omnium consensu rex creatus est. 

But usually the object is put before the other words which limit 
the verb, so that these stand as near as possible to it (hostem eqyi- 
tatu terrere). Questions begin with the interrogative word and 
what belongs to it, subordinate propositions with the conjunction or 
the relative pronoun. 

§ 465. a. The simple arrangement of the words is so far departed 
from for the sake of emphasis, that the word on which a particular 
stress is laid, as forming an antithesis to some other idea, either 
expressed or floating in the mind, is put before the less important 
word, which would otherwise precede it ; e.g. the governing word 
before that which it governs, or the word which helps to define the 
verb before the object: Caesar eqvitatu terrere hostem qvam 
cominus pugnare maluit. If for the sake of such a contrast, or 
for some other reason, a writer is giving prominence to a word as 
the most important with reference to the meaning of a whole propo- 
sition (e.g. the verb, when he would suggest that it is remarkable or 
surprising that a subject should have such a predicate), this word is 
put at the beginning without reference to its grammatical class or 
construction : — 

Movit me oratio tua. Sua vitia insipientes et suam culpam in 
senectutem conferunt (Cic. Cat. M. 5). Honesta magis qvam pru- 
dens oratio visa est. A malis mors abducit, non a bonis (Cic. 
Tusc. I. 34). 

A word, to which the proposition points from the beginning, and 
which completes the sense as soon as it is uttered ; or a word on 
which the thought dwells, as it were, for a time, may gain emphasis 
by being placed at the end of the proposition : — 

Seqvemur igitur hoc tempore et in hac occasione potissimum 
Stoicos (Cic. Off. I. 2). Helvetii dicebant, sibi esse in animo iter 
per provinciam facere, propterea qvod aliud iter haberent nullum 
(Cics. B. G. I. 7). Attici vita et oratio consecuta mini videtur 
difficillimam illam societatem gravitatis cum humanitate (Cic. 
Legg.III. 1). 

Obs. 1. When the verb stands before the object, some emphasis, 
though it may be but slight, usually falls on the notion contained in the 
verb. In the arrangement, Liber tuus exspectationem meam vicit, 



§ 465 ORDER OF WORDS IN A PROPOSITION. 427 

the expectation entertained of the book is first thought of, and then the 
fact that it has been surpassed ; in the arrangement, Liber tuus vicit 
exspectationem meam, the effect of the book is put prominently 
forward. But where there is no motive for giving prominence to either 
idea, the first arrangement is preferred. It constitutes an exception to 
this rule when an important object consisting of a union of several words 
is emphatically placed at the close of the proposition. 

Obs. 2. Sometimes the verb is put first only to avoid separating the 
other connected words, or to give prominence to one of them, and at the 
same time to form the transition: Erant ei veteres inimicitiae cum 
duobus Rosciis Amerinis (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 6). 

Obs. 3. The verb sum is often put without any emphasis before the 
predicate noun, particularly in definitions, or when the description con- 
sists of several emphatic words : Virtus est absolutio naturae. Sve- 
vorum gens est longe maxima et bellicosissima Germanorum 
omnium (Caes. B. G. IV. 1). 

Obs. 4. The participle of a passive verb formed with est (sum) is 
not unfrequently separated from its auxiliary. Especially it may be ob- 
served, that sometimes the participle stands first, then the subject, or 
something that qualifies the proposition, and last of all est: Omne ar- 
gentum ablatum ex Sicilia est (Cic. Yerr. IV. 16). Tecum mini 
instituenda oratio est (Id. Fin. Y. 29). Sometimes est (sit) stands 
without emphasis somewhere in the middle of the proposition, and the 
participle is put last: qvi in fortunae periculis sunt ac varietate 
versati (Cic. Yerr. Y. 50. Compare § 472, b). 

b. Relative words, referring to an antecedent which really pre- 
cedes them in the sentence, always stand first in the relative clause 
(in prose). Relatives, on the contrary, which refer to a demon- 
strative proposition following, may stand after a very emphatic 
word ; and this is also the case with interrogative pronouns : — 

Romam qvae asportata sunt, ad aedem Honoris et Virtutis 
videmus (Cic. Yerr. IY. 54), in contrast with what remained in 
Syracuse. Tarentum vero qva vigilantia, qvo consilio (Fabius) 
recepit? (Id. Cat. M. 4). 

So likewise, when a conjunctional subordinate proposition pre- 
cedes the leading proposition, the conjunction may stand after one 
or several words which have a particular emphasis, frequently after 
pronouns which refer to something preceding : — 

Haec tu, Eruci, tot et tanta si nactus esses in reo, qvamdiu 
diceres ? (Cic. Rose. Am. 32) . Qvae qvum ita sint, nihil censeo 



428 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 466 

mutandum. Romam ut nuntiatum est, Vejos captos, velut ex 
insperato immensum gaudium fuit (Liv. V. 32) . In prose the verb 
is never put before the relative or the conjunction. 

Obs. Ut and ne, even where the leading proposition comes first, have 
sometimes one or more words before them : tempore et loco consti- 
tute, in colloqvium uti de pace veniretur (Sail. Jug. 113). Cati- 
lina postulabat, patres conscripti ne qyid de se temere crederent 
(Id. Cat. 31). In particular a negative word often stands before ut, 
signifying so that (vix ut, nemo ut, nihil ut, nullus ut ; also prope ut, 
paene ut, sometimes magis. ut). 

§ 466. a. An adjective which belongs to a substantive a's its 
attribute, or a genitive which is governed by a substantive, usually 
stands after the substantive, but may stand before it, when, for the 
sake of contrast, or for any other reason, we wish to emphasize the 
adjective or genitive as qualifying words : — 

Ex rerum copia verba nasci debent. Filiorum laudibus etiam 
patres cohonestantur. Tuscus ager Romano adjacet (Liv. II. 
49). 

Obs. 1. In titles and names, and where custom has established the 
forms of expression for certain things, the adjective or genitive often has a 
fixed and definite place after the substantive : Civis Romanus, populus 
Romanus, res familiaris, aes alienum, jus civile, via Appia, magis- 
ter eqvitum, tribunus militum. Some unusual emphasis laid on this 
part of the expression changes this order in a very few instances. 

Obs. 2. Demonstrative pronouns stand before the substantive if no 
particular emphasis is to be laid on the latter : Incendium curiae, op- 
pugnationem aedium M. Lepidi, caedem hanc ipsam contra rem- 
publicam senatus factam esse decrevit (Cic. pro Mil. 5) . 

b. Between a substantive and its adjective there may stand words 
which qualify the substantive or the adjective : Summum eloqventiae 
studium ; in summa bonorum ac fortium virorum copia ; nocturnus 
in urbem adventus ; nostra in amicos benevolentia ; in summis, 
qvae nos urgent, difficultatibus ab iis, qvos miserat, difficultati- 
bus. (But we may also say, in summa copia bonorum ac fortium 
virorum, and, if the emphasis is to be placed on the genitive, in bono- 
rum ac fortium virorum summa copia). Homo omnibus virtuti- 
bus ornatus (ornatus omnibus virtutibus homo, but also omnibus 
virtutibus ornatus homo, according to the varying emphasis) . (Homo 
summo ingenio, summo ingenio homo, summo homo ingenio.) 1 

1 Permagnum optimi pondus argenti (Cic. Phil. IT. 27), so placed to give a promi- 
nence to both adjectives, and at the same time to bring argenti, which forms an antithesis 
with other words, to the last place. 



§ 468 ORDER OF WORDS IN A PROPOSITION. 429 

So likewise a preposition, which with its case qualifies the substantive 
governing the genitive, may be inserted with its case between the gov- 
erning substantive and the genitive ; and the same may also sometimes 
be done with a relative clause : Ex illo caelesti Epicuri de regula 
et judicio volumine (Cic. N. D. I. 16). Cato inimicitias multas 
gessit propter Hispanorum, apud qvos consul fuerat, injurias (Id. 
Div. inCsec. 20). 

§ 467. Sometimes, especially in the oratorical style, words quali- 
fying a substantive are separated from it so as to fix the attention 
on them more particularly, while the intermediate words are less 
prominent ; but no intermediate words should be allowed to make 
the construction ambiguous or uncertain. Thus one may sepa- 
rate — 

a. An adjective (or pronoun) from its substantive, so that the former 
is put further forward or back : Qvatridui sermonem superioribus 
ad te perscriptum libris misimus (Cic. Tusc. V. 4). Sine ulla 
rerum exspectatione meliorum (Id. ib. IV. 8). Magna nobis 
pueris, Q. frater, si memoria tenes, opinio fuit, L. Crassum, &c. 
(Id. de Or. II. 1). Sometimes, only a single unemphatic word (e.g. a 
pronoun as the subject or object, an adverb, &c.) is inserted between 
them : Hie me dolor angit ; hoc ego periculo moveor. Marcelli 
ad Nolam proelio populus se Romanus erexit (Cic. Brut. 3). 
Magna nuper laetitia affectus sum. 

b. A name from a word in apposition: Gravissimus auctor in 
originibus dixit Cato, morem apud majores nunc fuisse, &c. (Cic. 
Tusc. IV. 2). 

c. A genitive and its governing word, so that one or the other stands 
first in the sentence : Peto igitur a te, qvoniam id nobis, Antoni, 
hominibus id aetatis, oneris ab horum adolescentium studiis im- 
ponitur, ut exponas, &c. (Cic. de Or. I. 47). Stoicorum, non igno- 
ras, qvam sit subtile, vel spinosum potius disserendi genus (Id. 
Finn. III. 1). 

§ 468. Adverbs, which belong to a verb, usually stand next to 
it (before it, if it concludes the proposition) ; but they may either 
be placed for the sake of emphasis at the beginning or end of the 
sentence, or be inserted without emphasis between the more promi- 
nent words ; e.g. : — 

Magna nuper, M. Tulli, laetitia affectus sum. Bellum civile 
opinione plerumqve et fama gubernatur (Cic. Phil. V. 10. Com- 
pare § 472, 6). 



430 LATIN GRAMMAR. §469 

Adverbs which belong to an adjective or another adverb almost 
invariably stand before it, and adverbs of degree always, except 
admodum, which can be placed after the adjective, when that is 
itself emphatic : gravis admodum oratio. Sometimes the adverb 
of degree may stand for emphasis at the beginning of the sentence, 
and the adjective be put further back : — 

Hoc si Sulpicius noster faceret, multo ejus oratio esset pressior 
(Cic. deOr. II. 23). 

The negative particles always stand before the word to which 
they belong, and therefore before the verb (but not always imme- 
diately before it), when they apply to the whole proposition. 1 

Obs. The interrogative qvam is often separated from its adjective by 
an unemphatic sum : Earum causarum qvanta qvamqve sit justa 
unaqvaeqve videamus (Cic. Cat. M. 5). (Tarn in bona causa is 
rarely substituted for in tarn bona causa.) 

§ 469. The prepositions (those of one syllable, especially) are some- 
times inserted between an adjective which is emphatic (numeral, adjec- 
tive of multitude, superlative), or a pronoun, and the substantive: 
tribus de rebus ; multis de causis ; paucos post menses ; magna 
ex parte ; summa cum cura ; qva de causa ; ea de causa ; qva in 
urbe ; multos ante annos. It is less usual in good prose, to put the 
preposition between a genitive and its substantive : deorum in mente 
(except when the genitive is a relative or demonstrative pronoun : qvo- 
rum de virtutibus). 

Obs. 1. Some prepositions of two syllables (ante, circa, penes, 
ultra, but especially contra, inter, propter) are sometimes put after a 
relative pronoun (without a substantive) ; e.g. ii, qvos inter erat ; 
is, qvem contra venerat. (So, likewise, we find fundus, negotium, 
qvo de agitur; and rarely, qvos ad, hunc post, nunc juxta, hunc 
adversus.) A few later writers (as Tacitus), imitating the freedom of 
the poets, go still further in the transposing (Anastrophe) of the preposi- 
tions) . 2 

Obs. 2. A preposition may be separated from its case (a) by a geni- 
tive belonging to the latter, and that even with a subordinate proposition 
attached to it : propter Hispanorum, apud qvos consul fuerat, inju- 
rias (Cic. Div. in Case. 20) ; b. by an adverb belonging to the word 
governed by the preposition : ad bene beateqve vivendum; c. (rarely) 

1 Jam nunc, now already, in contrast with the future ; nunc jam, now, in contrast 
with the past, with an intimation of some recent change. 

2 Faesulas inter Arretiumqve (Liv. XXII. 3). 



§471 ORDER OF WORDS IN A PROPOSITION. 431 

by an object of the word governed, if this is a participle or adjective : 
in bella gerentibus (Cic. Brut. 12 ; the ordinary construction would 
be in iis, qvi bella gerunt) ; adversus hostilia ausos (Liv. I. 59) ; 
d. (rarely) by a copulative adverb, or one used for affirmation : post 
enim Chrysippum (Cic. Fin. II. 13 ; usually, post Chrysippum 
enim) ; contra mehercule meum judicium (Id. ad Att. XL 7). The 
unemphatic particles qve, ne, ve, are also sometimes appended to a 
preposition of one syllable (e.g. exqve iis, deve coloniis, postve ea, 
cumqve libellis) ; but they are more usually annexed to the substan- 
tive governed by the preposition : de consilio destitit, in patriam- 
qve rediit in reqve eo meliore, qvo major est (Cic. Fin. I. 1). 

§ 470. The prepositions are repeated with substantives that fol- 
low each other, when we wish to indicate the difference of the ideas 
and not to allow them to be blended into one (a te et a tuis), con- 
sequently always when et — et are used (et in bello et in pace), 
and nec — nee, usually also with aut — aut, and vel — vel, and 
after nisi (in nulla re nisi in virtute), and after a comparative (in 
nulla re melius qvam in virtute) ; on the contrary, not with words 
which are connected by qve. 

Obs. 1. With et — et and aut — aut, the preposition may sometimes 
be put before the conjunction : cum et nocturno et diurno metu (Cic. 
Tusc. Y. 23). 

Obs. 2. Some prepositions of one syllable are often repeated without 
any particular reason. Inter is frequently repeated after interest (in- 
terest inter argumentum conclusionemqve rationis et inter mediOv 
crem animadversionem, Cic. Finn. I. 9), and occasionally also in 
other connections, particularly in the poets (Nestor Componere lites 
inter Peliden festinat et inter Atriden, Hor. Ep. I. 2, 12). 

Obs. 3. A substantive cannot, in Latin, be governed by two prepo- 
sitions : we must say, ante aciem postve earn (not ante postve 
aciem). 

§ 471. The following observations apply to the position of cer- 
tain particles which connect the discourse. Enim, for, always 
stands after one word, seldom after two. (Nam always at the be- 
ginning, and so, also, namqve in the best prose.) Ergo, therefore, 
either stands first, or after an important word of the sentence (Hunc 
ergo, qvid ergo, &c.) ; when it denotes not a conclusion, but only 
a transition, it is almost always put after a word. It is usual to 
put igitur after one or two words (Qvid habes igitur, qvod mu- 
tatum velis?), or even last, after several words that are closely 



432 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 472 

connected (Ejus bono fruendum est igitur, Cic. Tusc. V. 23). 
Yet it is also put first, — in some writers (e.g. Sallust) more fre- 
quently than others. (Itaqve, therefore, consequently, very rarely 
stands after a word in good prose.) Tamen stands at the begin- 
ning, except where a single word is to be made emphatic by anti- 
thesis. Etiam^ also, even, stands generally before the particular 
word to which it belongs ; but it is also put after it, especially if the 
word is removed to the beginning of the sentence for the sake of 
emphasis, ftvoqve, also (in good writers), always stands after the 
word to which it belongs, and which contains the new idea that is 
added: Me qvoqve haec ars decepit; tua qvoqve causa. So 
likewise qvidem is always put after the word, which is thus empha- 
sized and contrasted with others : — 

Nostrum qvidem studium vides, qvam tibi sit paratum. Id 
nos fortasse non perfecimus ; conati qvidem saepissime sumus 
(Cic. Or. 62), at least. L. qvidem Philippus gloriari solebat, &c. 
(Id. Off. II. 17) . Ac Metellum qvidem eximia ejus virtus defendet. 
The same holds good of demum. (Nunc demum , sexto demum 
anno.) 

Obs. 1. If enim, autem, or igitur and est or sunt come into juxta- 
position, the verb usually stands, without emphasis, in the second place, 
if the proposition begins with the word on which the emphasis is laid ; 
e.g. Qvis est enim ; nemo est autem. Sapientia est enim una, 
qvae maestitiam pellat ex animis (Cic. Finn. I. 43). Magna est 
enim vis humanitatis (Id. Rose. Am. 22). On the other hand, the 
verb is put in the third place, if the emphasis falls more on the words 
which come after it; e.g. Cupiditates enim sunt insatiabiles (Id. 
Finn. I. 13). 

Obs. 2. Concerning some other words, which always have a definite 
place in the proposition, all that is necessary to be said is noticed else- 
where : as on inqvit, § 162, b, Obs. ; on autem and vero, § 437, Obs. j 
on qvisqve, § 495. 

§ 472. a. Words which belong at the same time to several con- 
nected words are regularly put either before or after all of them : — 

Hostes victoriae non omen modo, sed gratulationem praecepe- 
runt. Amicitiam nee usu nee ratione habent cognitam. Yet 
the common word is sometimes put with the first of them, while the sec- 
ond follows after, and greater emphasis is given to both : Ante Laelii 
aetatem et Scipionis (Cic. Tusc, IV. 3). Qvae populari gloria 
decorari in Lucullo debuerunt, ea fere sunt et Graecis litteris cele- 
brata et Latinis (Id. Acad. II. 2). 



§ 474 ORDER OF WORDS IN A PROPOSITION. 433 

b. In other cases also, particularly in oratory, another word that is 
less emphatic is inserted between two connected words (e.g. the object, 
the subject, the verb of the proposition, or some qualifying phrase), by 
which means the mind is induced to dwell more on each, or the last is 
added as an afterthought : Ipse Sulla ab se hominem atqve ab exer- 
citu suo removit (Cic. Verr. I. 15). Oppida, in qvibus consistere 
praetores et conventus agere solent (Id. ib. V. 11). Ne opifices 
qvidem se ab artibus suis removerunt, qvi Ialysi, qvem Rhodi 
vidimus, non potuerunt aut Coae Veneris pulchritudinem imitari 
(Id. Or. 2). (Dolori suo maluit qvam auctoritati vestrae obtem- 
perare, Id. pro Leg. Man. 19). 

§ 473. a. Words which mutually emphasize kindred or contrasted 
ideas, are put together: Qvaedam falsa veri speciem habent. 
Seqvere, qvo tua te virtus ducet. 

b. If two coordinate propositions or two series of connected 
words form an antithesis, in which the separate words correspond 
to each other, the order is sometimes inverted in the second propo- 
sition or series, instead of being repeated, in order to make the 
antithesis more striking ; so that the word which stands at the be- 
ginning of the first member finds its counterpart at the end of the 
last (Chiasmus) : a — 

Ratio nostra consentit, repugnat oratio (Cic. Finn. III. 3). Cla- 
riorem inter Romanos deditio Fostumium qvam Fontium incru- 
enta victoria inter Samnites fecit (Liv. IX. 12). 

§ 474. The poetical arrangement of words is distinguished from 
that followed in prose by a much greater freedom, and also by the 
circumstance that it is regulated not only by the sense and empha- 
sis, but often by the necessity of the verse. The freedom is shown 
in the circumstance, that words which are connected together in 
meaning, and in prose would stand together, are often separated, 
and words which in prose have their appointed place are trans- 
posed to another part of the sentence. Care, however, is taken, 
that the construction be not thereby rendered doubtful or ambigu- 
ous. The following are the cases most frequently met with : — 

a. Adverbs and prepositions with their cases (ablatives without a 
preposition) are separated from the verbs, or participles, to which they 
belong : Hie, datis vadibus qvi rure extractus in urbem est, solos 
felices viventes clamat in urbe (Hor. Sat. I. 1, 12). 

i Xcaofidg from X L ^ €LV , to place crosswise. 
28 



434 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 474 

b. Adjectives and genitives are arbitrarily separated by other words 
from the substantive to which they belong : Saevae memorem Junonis 
ob iram (Virg. iEn. I. 4). Ipse deum tibi me claro demittit 
Olympo regnator (Id. ib. IV. 268). In particular, it frequently hap- 
pens that a substantive and its adjective or participle are put separately 
in the two divisions of a hexameter or pentameter: Egressi optata 
potiuntur Troes arena (Id. ib. I. 172). Ponitur ad patrios bar- 
bara praeda deos (Ov. Her. I. 26). 

c. Prepositions are not only put arbitrarily between an adjective or a 
genitive and its substantive (Trojano ab sangvine; qvibus orbis ab 
oris), but also stand after the substantive with the adjective (puppi 
deturbat ab alta), or even with the genitive (ora sub Augusti). They 
are also put (but rarely, and generally only the dissyllables) after all the 
words whose case depends on them: maria omnia circum ; acres inter 
numeretur (Hor. Sat. I. 3, 53). 

Obs. Sometimes, another word, unconnected with the substantive, 
is inserted between the preposition and its case : Vulneraqve ilia ge- 
rens, qvae circum plurima muros accepit patrios (Virg. iEn. II. 
278) : Ultor ad ipse suos caelo descendit honores (Ov. Fast. V. 
551) ; and even where the case precedes the preposition by which it is 
governed: Vitiis nemo sine nascitur (Hor. Sat. I. 3, 69). A prepo- 
sition which belongs to two substantives is sometimes attached only to 
the last : Foedera vel Gabiis vel cum rigidis aeqvata Sabinis (Hor. 
Ep. II. 1, 25). Non legatos neqve prima per artem tentamenta 
tui pepigi (Virg. 2En. VIII. 143). 

d. The conjunctions et, nee (rarely, aut, vel) and sed (sed enim) are 
sometimes put after a word in the second member of the sentence : Qvo 
gemitu conversi animi, compulsus et omnis impetus (Virg. Mn. 
II. 73). Progeniem sed enim Trojano ab sangvine duci audierat 
(Id. ib. I. 19). The same is done with the relative pronoun (which 
sometimes stands after several words) : Arma virumqve cano, Trojae 
qvi primus ab oris — venit. Tu numina ponti Victa domas, ip- 
sumqve, regit qvi numina ponti (Ov. Met. V. 370). The same 
holds of nam and namqve. Conjunctions wnich connect subordi- 
nate propositions are often removed from the beginning of the propo- 
sition. 

e. Copulative and disjunctive conjunctions (et, ac, atqve, neqve, 
neve — aut, vel) are not always followed immediately by that which 
they connect with a foregoing word, but one or more words, which 
relate in common to both of the connected words, are interposed : In- 
vidia atqve vigent ubi crimina (Hor. Sat. I. 3, 61). Qvum lectu- 
lus aut me porticus excepit (Id. ib. I. 4, 133). Caestus ipsius et 



§475 ARRANGEMENT OP PROPOSITIONS. 435 

Herculis arma (Virg. 2En. V. 410). Nee dulces amores sperne 
puer neqve tu choreas (Hor. Od. I. 9, 15). 

f. The particles qve, ne, ve, are sometimes removed from the word 
to which they properly belong to some word common to both members 
of the sentence, usually the verb : Hie jacet immiti consumptus 
morte Tibullus, Messalam terra dum seqviturqve mari (Tib. I. 3, 
55). Non Pyladem ferro violare aususve sororem (Hor. Sat. II. 
3, 139). (Pacis eras mediusqve belli, Id. Od. II. 19, 28. Semper 
in adjunctis aevoqve morabimur aptis, Id. A. P. 178) . 

Obs. Sometimes qve is removed from the first word of a new propo- 
sition to the second or third : (Furor hie) semper in obtutu mentem 
vetat esse malorum, Fraesentis casus immemoremqve facit (Ov. 
Tr. IV. 1, 39). (Brachia sustulerat, Diqve o communiter omnes, 
dixerat, parcite, Ov. Met. VI. 262, instead of dixeratqve, Di, &c.) 

g. A substantive common to two connected propositions is some- 
times not introduced till the second clause, either without any qualify- 
ing word, or having an adjective which stands in the first clause: 
Transmittunt cursu campos atqve agmina cervi pulverulentS 
fuga glomerant (Virg. iEn. IV. 154). An sit mini gratior ulla, 
qvove magis fessas optem demittere naves, qvam qvae Darda- 
nium tellus mihi servat Acesten (Id. ib. V. 28). Qvid pater Is- 
mario, qvid mater profuit Orpheo? (Ov. Am. III. 9, 21). 

h. Words belonging to a short leading proposition, especially its verb, 
are sometimes inserted in the subordinate proposition belonging to it : 
Sedulus hospes paene, macros, arsit, turdos dum versat in igni 
(Hor. Sat. I. 5, 72). Qvicqvid erat medicae, vicerat, artis, amor 
(Tib. II. 3, 14). 

Obs. The arrangement of the words is not equally free in all poets, and 
in every species of poetry. Thus, the comic poets avoid bold transposi- 
tions, which would be too much at variance with the usual expressions of 
every-day life. 



CHAPTER H. 

ARRANGEMENT OF PROPOSITIONS. 

§ 475. When the parts of a compound proposition (§ 325) are 
so arranged, that we cannot break off before the last clause has 
been enunciated, and yet retain a correct and perfect grammatical 
form, it has the name of a period (periodus). A period is formed, 
therefore, by putting the subordinate before the leading proposition, 



436 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 476 

or by inserting in the leading proposition itself one or more subor- 
dinate propositions, which qualify it ; and this last form (when the 
leading proposition is broken by intervening propositions) sometimes 
receives the name of period by way of distinction (period in a nar- 
rower sense). It may often happen, that the protasis and apodosis 
are each divided by intervening propositions, and have consequently 
the structure of a period. The way in which the individual propo- 
sitions are arranged and connected together so as to form periods, is 
called the Structure of the period. This gives discourse more con- 
nection, since in this way all the parts of a leading conception 
present themselves in the natural order in which they occur to the 
mind, and in that order are linked together (the cause before the 
effect, &c). 

§ 476. The Latin language is particularly well adapted for the 
formation of a variety of intricate periods, since it admits, more 
freely than many, of the insertion of one proposition in another, 
and the placing of the subordinate before the leading proposition. 
With respect to this liberty the following observations may be 
made. 

<z. All subordinate propositions, which it would be possible to 
place before the leading proposition to which they belong, at the 
beginning of a period (that is to say, all subordinate propositions, 
except such as denote a result), may also be inserted in the leading 
proposition after its first word or words, and that without its being 
necessary that any particular grammatical element of the proposition 
in which it is inserted (with the exception of particles and pronouns 
which serve as connectives), should precede the insertion: — 

L. Manlio, qvum dictator fuisset, M. Pomponius, tribunus 
plebis, diem dixit (Cic. Off. III. 31). Antea, ubi esses, ignora- 
bam. 

Obs. 1. A period in which the leading proposition is interrupted is 
often formed by placing first a word which is common to the leading 
and the subordinate proposition (e.g. as a common subject or object), 
and putting the subordinate proposition immediately after it : Stultitia, 
etsi adepta est, qvod concupivit, nunqvani se tamen satis con- 
secutam putat (Cic. Tusc. V. 18). Pompejus Cretensibus, qvum 
ad eum usqve in Pamphiliam legatos deprecatoresqve misissent, 
spem deditionis non ademit (Id. pro Leg. Man. 12). 

Obs. 2. A relative proposition (including those introduced by a relative 
pronominal adverb to express time or manner) may stand before the 



§ 476 AERANGEMENT OF PROPOSITIONS. 437 

demonstrative proposition, not only when the former actually begins the 
period, but also when one or more words of the latter are placed before the 
relative proposition, the demonstrative word itself and the remainder of 
the demonstrative proposition being placed after the relative proposition. 
Such an arrangement serves not only to unite the propositions more 
closely, but also to add force to comparison and contrast : Invidi, qvi- 
bus ipsi uti neqveunt, eorum tamen fructu alios prohibent. Pri- 
mum vigilet adolescens necesse est in deligendo (qvem imitetur) 
deinde, qvem probavit, in eo, qvae mazime excellent, ea diligen- 
tissime perseqvatur (Cic. de Or. II. 22). Ceteris in rebus, qvum 
venit calamitas, turn detrimentum accipitur (Id. pro Leg. Man. 6). 
Si Verres, qvam audax est ad conandum, tarn esset obscurus in 
agendo, fortasse aliqva in re nos aliqvando fefellisset (Id. Act. I. 
in Yerr. 2) . (The relative clause may also stand first where two nouns 
or adverbs are compared : Orationem habuit ut honestam, ita parum 
utilem. Insignem earn pestilentiam mors qvam matura tarn acerba 
M. Furii fecit, Liv. VII. 1.) 

b. Between a subordinate proposition at the commencement of a 
period and the leading proposition which it introduces, there may 
be inserted a second subordinate proposition, which is more inti- 
mately connected with the latter, or contains some special observa- 
tion or definition applying to it : — 

Et qvoniam studium meae defensionis ab accusatoribus atqve 
etiam ipsa susceptio causae reprehensa est, anteqvam pro L. Mu- 
rena dicere instituo, pro me ipso pauca dicam (Cic. pro Mur. 1). 
Qvum nostrum copiae non longe absunt, etiamsi irruptio nulla 
facta est, tamen pecua relinqvuntur, agricultura deseritur (Id. pro 
Leg. Man. 6) . Fugatis hostibus, qvanqvam flumen transire tuto 
licebat, tamen reliqvum exercitum opperiri placuit. (Here the 
subordinate proposition is inserted between the participial and leading 
propositions : though, after the defeat of the enemy, the river might have 
been crossed with safety.} Si qvis istorum dixisset, in qvibus 
summa auctoritas est, si verbum de republica fecisset, multo plura 
dixisse, qvam dixisset, putaretur (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 1. Compare 
§ 442, a) . Hujus rei qvae consvetudo sit, qvoniam apud homines 
peritissimos dico, pluribus verbis docere non debeo (Id. pro 
Cluent. 41 ; where the subordinate proposition is inserted between a de- 
pendent question and the governing proposition). Qvoniam, cujus 
consilio Sex. Roscius occisus sit, invenio, cujus manu sit per- 
cussus, non laboro (Id. pro Rose. Am. 34). Macedonia qvum se 
consilio et manu Fonteji conservatam dicat, ut ilia per hunc a 
Thracum depopulatione defensa est, sic ab hujus nunc capite Gal- 



438 LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§476 



lorum impetus depellet (Cic. pro Font. 16. In this example the rela- 
tive proposition, after a protasis, precedes the demonstrative leading 
proposition) . 

c. A subordinate proposition, which belongs to another subordi- 
nate proposition (usually a conjunctional one), is sometimes placed 
before the latter (before the conjunction), instead of being inserted 
in it or put after it. (In this way a particular prominence is given 
to the statement contained in the proposition so prefixed) : — 

Qvid autem agatur, qvum aperuero, facile erit statuere, qvam 
sententiam dicatis (Cic. Phil. V . ■ 2) . Rogavi, qvoniam cetera 
concessissent, ne hoc unum negarent. Qvod usu non veniebat, 
de eo si qvis legem aut judicium constitueret, non tarn pro- 
hibere videretur qvam admonere (Cic. pro Tull. 4). Caesar, ab 
exploratoribus certior factus, hostes sub monte consedisse, qva- 
lis esset natura loci, qvi cognoscerent, misit (Cass. B. G. I. 21). 

Obs. The different forms given under a (Obs> 2), b, and c, may 
be combined ; e.g. Philosophandi scientiam concedens multis, qvod 
est oratoris proprium, apte, distincte, ornate dicere, qvoniam in 
eo studio aetatem consumpsi, si id mini assumo, vide or id meo 
jure qvodam modo vindicare (Cic. Off. I. 1). After the participle, 
the relative proposition qvod est, &c, takes the first place; then, in 
order the better to establish the demonstrative proposition, the clause 
commencing with qvoniam, &c, is inserted (6), and lastly the demon- 
strative itself is changed to a subordinate proposition with si, retaining, 
however, according to c, its own subordinate propositions before it. 
It happens very frequently, in Livy, that what is expected as an apodo- 
sis to a preceding subordinate proposition or to several such, suddenly 
becomes a subordinate proposition itself by the insertion of a conjunc- 
tion (qvum, qvia) r Ibi qvum Herculem, cibo vinoqve gravatum 
sopor oppressisset, pastor, accola ejus loci, nomine Cacus, ferox 
viribus, captus pulchritudine bourn, qvum avertere earn praedam 
vellet, qvia, si agendo armentum in speluncam compulisset, ipsa 
vestigia qvaerentem dominum eo deductura erant, aversos boves 
caudis in speluncam traxit (Liv. I. 7) . 

d. If a dependent proposition (especially an indirect question) 
is drawn to the beginning of the period by a pronoun which refers 
to something that precedes, or with a view to emphasis and anti- 
thesis, we may insert either the whole governing proposition (if it 
be short), or some words of it, in the dependent proposition, be- 
tween the connecting pronoun or the emphatic words which come 
first and the interrogative word or conjunction : — 



§ 477 ARRANGEMENT OF PROPOSITIONS. 439 

Qvae, breviter, qvalia sint in Cn. Pompejo, consider emus (Cic. 
pro Leg. Man. 13). Stoicorum autem, non ignoras, qvam sit sub- 
tile vel spinosum potius disserendi genus (Id. Finn. III. 1). Ex 
qvibus, alienissimis hominibus, ita paratus venis, ut tibi hospes 
aliqvis recipiendus sit (Id. Div. in Case. 15). Infima est conditio 
et fortuna servorum, qvibus, non male praecipiunt, qvi ita jubent 
uti ut mercenariis (Id. Off. I. 13. Compare § 445). 

Obs, The accusative with the infinitive is not considered absolutely 
as a distinct proposition, but as intimately combined with the leading propo- 
sition (in which it may be inserted according to a : Omnes Caesarem 
appropinqvare narrabant). Not only, therefore, may we insert a 
short proposition (which again may itself be a subordinate proposition), 
or one or several words of it, in an accusative with the infinitive, in the 
manner pointed out under d (Platonem Cicero scribit Tarentum 
venisse ; earn causam qvum ego me suscepturum profiterer, repu- 
diatus sum), but even where the leading proposition comes first, its verb 
often stands after the subject of the infinitive (particularly a pronoun), 
sometimes also after another very emphatic word : Caesar sese negat 
eo die proelio decertaturum. 

§ 477. Care should be taken in the structure of periods, that each 
subordinate proposition be inserted just where there is occasion to 
think of its contents, or where it is called for by some word of the 
leading proposition. In the historical style the chronological ar- 
rangement of the several parts of the leading proposition, and the 
circumstances to which it refers, is particularly to be attended to. 
It is also necessary, where there are several subordinate proposi- 
tions, to avoid too great a uniformity in their structure, unless it 
should happen that several circumstances which stand in the same 
relation to the leading proposition are expressed in coordinate 
propositions. We must especially avoid inserting one proposition 
in another in such a way that several terminations of a precisely 
similar form come together at last, especially a number of verbs, 
which belong severally to different members of the proposition, 
although such periods are occasionally found in the old writers (e.g. 
Constiterunt, nuntios in castra remissos, qvi, qvid sibi, qvando 
praeter spem hostis occurrisset, faciendum esset, consulerent, 
qvieti opperientes, Liv. XXXIII. 6). 1 In a good period there 
must be a certain symmetry of the parts, particularly between those 



1 On the other hand, there is no ohjection to several verbs coming together, one of which is 
governed by the other in the infinitive ; e.g. Foedus sanciri posse dicebant. 



440 LATIN GRAMMAR. §478 

inserted and the conclusion of the leading proposition, so that this 
may not be too short and abrupt, unless this very brevity is intended 
to produce a certain effect. The two following may serve as ex- 
amples of carefully constructed periods : — 

Ut saepe homines aegri morbo gravi, qvum aestu febriqve jac- 
tantur, si aqvam gelidam biberunt, primo relevari videntur de- 
inde multo gravius vehementiusqve afflictantur, sic hie morbus, 
qvi est in republica, relevatus istius poena, vehementius, vivis 
reliqvis, ingravescet (Cic. in Cat. I. 13). Numitor, inter primum 
tumultum, hostes invasisse urbem atqve adortos regiam dictitans, 
qvum pubem Albanam in arcem praesidio armisqve obtinendam 
avocasset, postqvam juvenes, perpetrata caede pergere ad se gra- 
tulantes vidit, extemplo advocato consilio, scelera in se fratris, 
originem nepotum, ut geniti, ut educati, ut cogniti essent, caedem 
deinceps tyranni seqve ejus auctorem ostendit (Liv. I. 6) . 



FIRST APPENDIX TO THE SYNTAX. 

OF SOME SPECIAL IRREGULARITIES IN THE CONSTRUCTION OP 

WORDS. 

§ 478. The Verb understood. In coordinate propositions 
the verb is often omitted in one of the propositions, and supplied 
in it from the other, in the same or a different person and number, 
and not only (as in English) in the clause which follows from that 
which precedes, but also in the reverse order (because in Latin the 
proposition usually concludes with the verb) : — 

Beate vivere alii in alio, vos in voluptate ponitis (Cic. Finn. 
II. 37) . In iis, in qvibus sapientia perfecta non est, ipsum illud 
perfectum honestum nullo modo (sc. esse potest), similitudines 
honesti esse possunt (Id. Off. III. 3) . L. Luculli virtutem qvis ? 
at qvam multi villarum magnificentiam sunt imitati ? (Id. ib. I. 
39) . Nee Graeci terra nee Romanus mari bellator erat (Liv. VII. 
26). (The referring a verb to two subjects, differing in person, number, 
or gender, is called Syllepsis.) 

Obs. 1. In a subordinate proposition, the verb may be supplied 
from a preceding subordinate proposition of the same character : Ea 
magis percipimus atqve sentimus, qvae nobis ipsis prospera 



§ 478 IRREGULARITIES IN CONSTRUCTION OP WORDS. 441 

aut adversa eveniunt, qvam ilia, qvae ceteris (Cic. Off. I. 9) ; 
rarely from a subordinate proposition of a different kind: Certe 
nihil (intelligit honestum) nisi qvod possit ipsum propter se 
laudari. Nam si propter voluptatem (sc. laudatur), qvae est 
ista laus, qvae possit e macello peti? (Id. Finn. II. 15). In 
short subordinate propositions, the verb may be supplied from leading 
propositions which have the same subject : Sapienter haec reliqvisti, 
si consilio, feliciter, si casu (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 28). In relative 
expressions of comparison, the verb is omitted, as in coordinate propo- 
sitions : Adeptus es, qvod non multi homines novi (Cic. Fam. V. 
18) . The verb is rarely supplied in the leading proposition from the 
subordinate : e.g. Si te municipiorum non pudebat, ne veterani 
qvidem exercitus ? (Cic. Phil. II. 25) ; this occurs most frequently in 
comparisons : Ut enim cupiditatibus principum et vitiis infici solet 
tota civitas, ita emendari et corrigi continentia (Cic. Legg. III. 
13) . Olim, qvum regnare existimabamur, non tarn ab ullis, qvam 
hoc tempore observor a familiarissimis Caesaris (Cic. ad Fam. 
VII. 24 ; in this example the verb is understood in another tense, — ob- 
servabar, — which is the case sometimes when the remaining words indi- 
cate the difference of time: Jugurtha dicit, turn sese, paulo ante 
Carthaginienses, post, ut qvisqve opulentissimus videatur, ita 
Romanis hostem fore, Sail. Jug. 81). 

Obs. 2. From a verb in a finite mood, the infinitive is often supplied 
in a subordinate proposition ; e.g. Rogat Rubrium, ut, qvos commo- 
dum ei sit, invitet (Cic. Verr. I. 26) . Si noles sanus, curres hy- 
dropicus (Hor. Ep. I. 2, 34). With this exception a verb is very rarely 
supplied from a different mood (as, for example, when the whole sense is 
expressed by a single word which is antithetical to one going before) ; as, 
Si per alios Roscium hoc fecisse dicis, qvaero, servosne an liberos 
(Cic. Rose. Am. 27) = per servosne an per liberos hoc eum fecisse 
dicas ? 1 

Obs. 3. Sometimes (but mostly in writers who are accustomed to a 
harshness of construction) one verb is used as common to two antithetical 
propositions (or objects), which is only suitable to the nearest, so that 
some kindred signification, comprised under the same more general idea, 
must be supplied with the other : e.g. Germanicus, qvod arduum, sibi, 
cetera legatis permisit (Tac. Ann. II. 20; from permisit we must 
supply with sibi, he reserved for himself, he imposed on himself) . (This 
is called Zeugma.) 



1 Sed utilitatis specie in republica saepissime peccatur, ut in Corinthi 
disturbatione nostri (Cic. Off. III. 11, sc. peccarunt). 



442 LATIN GRAMMAR. §479 

§ 479. Ellipsis of the Verb. Sometimes the verb is 
omitted, though it cannot be supplied from a preceding or subse- 
quent proposition, so that we only see from the other words of the 
proposition what verb is to be understood. This Ellipsis of the 
verb is met with only in animated discourse, in short and simple 
propositions, chiefly leading propositions in the indicative. On this 
point we must make the following remarks : — 

a. Est and sunt are often omitted in short and pithy general judg- 
ments and sentences, or in quick and passionate transitions, sometimes 
also in rapid descriptions, which consist of antithetical clauses, and with 
the perfect participle in propositions which form single members of a 
continuous narrative: Omnia praeclara rara (Cic. Lael. 21). Jucundi 
acti labores (Id. Finn. II. 32) . Sed haec Vetera ; illud vero recens, 
Caesarem meo consilio interfectum (Id. Phil. II. 11.) Ecqvis est, 
qvi illud aut fieri noluerit aut factum improbarit ? Omnes ergo in 
culpa (Id. ib. II. 12). Africa fines habet ab occidente fretum 
nostri maris et Oceani, ab ortu solis declivem latitudinem, qvem 
locum Catabathmon incolae appellant. Mare saevum, importuo- 
sum, ager frugum fertilis, bonus pecori, arbore infecundus ; caelo 
terraqve penuria aqvarum (Sail. Jug. 17) . Nondum dedicata erat in 
Capitolio Jovis aedes ; Valerius Horatiusqve consules sortiti, uter 
dedicaret; Horatio sorte evenit; Publicola ad Vejentium bellum 
profectus. Aegrius, qvam dignum erat, tulere Valerii necessarii, 
dedicationem tarn incliti templi Horatio dari (Liv. II. 8). Erat 
and fuit (erant and fuerunt) are less frequently omitted, and only where 
the past time is sufficiently indicated by the context : Polycratem Sa- 
mium felicem appellabant. Nihil acciderat ei, qvod nollet, nisi 
qvod anulum, qvo delectabatur, in mari abjecerat. Ergo infelix 
una molestia, felix rursus, qvum is ipse anulus in praecordiis pis- 
cis inventus est ? (Cic. Finn. V . 30) . 

Obs. In the poets est is often left out in a rather striking manner ; 
e.g. in relative propositions : Pol me occidistis amici, cui sic extorta 
voluptas (Hor. Ep. II. 2, 138). The subjunctive of sum is very 
rarely omitted, especially in prose : Potest incidere contentio et com- 
paratio, de duobus honestis utrum honestius (Cic. Off. I. 43). 
Esse in an accusative with the infinitive is rarely omitted (except with 
participles, concerning which see § 406, and with gerundives), e.g. in 
the expression volo, (nolo, malo) me physicum, me patris similem, 
me audacem, / wish to be and to pass for — . 

6. Inqvit is sometimes omitted in a brief notice of the change of 
persons in a dialogue : Turn Crassus cet. Huic ego, Nolo te mirari 
cet. Praeclare qvidem dicis, Laelius (sc. inqvit) ; etenim video 



§ 479 IRREGULARITIES IN CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 443 

cet. (Cic. R. P. III. 32). This occurs in the poets, even where inqvit 
should form an apodosis : Ut vidit socios, " Tempus desistere pugnae 
(sc. inqvit), solus ego in Pallanta feror " (Virg. Mn. X. 441). 

c. Dico and facio may be omitted in leading propositions, when an 
assertion or action is briefly characterized by an adverb of praise or dis- 
praise : Bene igitur idem Chrysippus, qvi omnia in perfectis et 
maturis docet esse meliora (Cic. N. D. II. 14). Scite enim Chry- 
sippus, ut clipei causa involucrum, vaginam gladii, sic praeter 
mundum cetera omnia aliorum causa esse generata (Id. ib. II. 
14). Qvanto haec melius vulgus imperitorum, qvi non membra 
solum hominis deo tribuant, sed usum etiam membrorum ? (Id. 
ib. I. 36), how much better does the common man do this = does he treat 
this subjects 

Obs. So also occasionally in quoting an example : Alia subito ex 
tempore conjectura explicantur, ut apud Homerum Calchas qvi 
es passerum numero belli Trojani annos auguratus est (Cic. Div. 

I. 33) . Facio and fio are also sometimes omitted after ne : De ever- 
tendis diripiendisqve urbibus valde considerandum est, ne qvid 
temere, ne qvid crudeliter (Cic. Off. I. 24). Cave,turpe qvidqvam 
(Id. Tusc. II. 22). 

d. The verb may, in general, be omitted, in familiar and every-day 
discourse, or imitations of it, in those leading propositions in which an 
accusative or other words (e.g. an adverb) qualifying the verb sufficiently 
point it out, and in which it is desired to attain the greatest brevity, and 
to compress, as it were, the whole proposition into an accusative, or 
some other qualifying form : Crassus verbum nullum contra gratiam 
(Cic. ad Att. I. 18) . Ubi enim aut Xenocratem Antiochus seqvi- 
tur aut Aristotelem ? A Chrysippo pedem nunqvam (Id. Acad. 

II. 46). Qvas tu mihi, inqvit, intercessiones, qvas religiones? 
(Id. Phil. I. 10) . A me Caesar pecuniam ? (sc. postulat, Id. Phil. 
II. 29). Hie ex me, nihilne audissem navi; ego negare (Id. ad 
Att. II. 12). Sed qvid ego alios (sc. commemoro)? ad me ipsum 
jam revertar (Id. Cat. M. 13). Sed ad ista alias (sc. respondebo); 
nunc Lucilium audiamus (Id. 1ST. D. II. 1). Cicero Attico salu- 
tem (occurs often in the superscriptions, of letters). Di meliora! 
(dent). 

Obs. 1. In certain expressions, such an ellipsis has become a general 
usage ; e.g. in the phrases nihil ad me, ad te, &c. (sc. pertinet, it does 
not concern me) : qvid mihi (nobis, &c.) cum hac re ? ivhat have I to 
do with it ? Qvorsum haec ? Especially in certain transitions with 

qvid, how; qvid, qvod (how is it that ? what shall ice say to 

this, that ?) qvid, si (how, if ) ; qvid ergo ? qvid 

enim ? qvid turn ? (what, then ?) qvid postea ? Qvid multa ? (sc. 



444 LATIN GRAMMAE. §480 

dicam= in short ; also, ne multa). So likewise, in some proverbial 
expressions; as, Fortuna fortes (sc. adjuvat). Minima de malis 
(eligenda sunt). 

Obs. 2. Sometimes, when the writer is hurrying in a rapid style, he 
omits, after the nominative, a verb of happening, occurring, &c, in order 
quickly to give a new point or item of his narrative : Clamor inde 
concursusqve mirantium, qvid rei esset (Liv. I. 41) . Italiae rur- 
sus concursatio eadem comite mima; in oppida militum cru- 
delis et misera deductio (Cic. Phil. II. 25), after that followed again, 
&c. (Qvid Pompejus de. me senserit, sciunt, qvi eum Paphum 
secuti sunt. Nusqvam ab eo mentio de me nisi honorifica (Id. 
ib. II. 15). 

Obs. 3. Such omissions are less frequent in the subordinate propo- 
sition : Itaqve exspecto, qvid ad ista (sc. dicturus sis, Cic. Tusc. 
IY. 20). 1 

Obs. 4. Sometimes, we find the infinitives dicere, commemorare, 
and the like, left out in this manner: Sed non necesse est nunc 
omnia (Cic. Tusc. III. 18). 

Obs. 5. We may particularly notice the expression nihil aliud qvam 
(in Livy, and the succeeding writers), in which originally the verb 
facio appears to have been omitted (e.g. Venter in medio qvietus 
nihil aliud qvam datis voluptatibus fruitur, Liv. II. 32 = nihil 

aliud facit nisi fruitur, see § 442, c, Obs. 2), but which, in 

these writers, stands simply as an adverb, in the sense of merely, only, 
with a verb ; e.g. Hostes, nihil aliud qvam perfusis vano timore 

Romanis, citato agmine abeunt (Liv. II. 63), after they had only . 

(Nero philosophum, a qvo convicio laesus erat, nihil amplius 
qvam urbe Italiaqve summovit, Svet. jSTer. 39) . In the same way, 
si nihil aliud (even if nothing else is attained) stands with the significa- 
tion at least (even if from no other motive) : Venit in judicium P. 
Junius, si nihil aliud, saltern ut eum, cujus opera ipse multos an- 
nos esset in sordibus, paullo tandem obsoletius vestitum videret 
(Cic. Verr. I. 58). . 

Obs. 6. Quite distinct from Ellipsis is the sudden breaking off of a 
proposition which has been commenced, and which we do not choose to 
complete (Aposiopesis) ; e.g. Qvosego — sed motos praestat compo- 
nere fluctus (Virg. iEn. I. 135). 

§ 480. Anacoltjthia. Sometimes writers indulge in the same 
inaccuracy, which occurs in oral discourse ; namely, that a proposi- 



1 Qvum ille ferociter ad haec (sc. diceret), se patris sui tenere sedem — 
clamor oritur (Liv. I. 48). 



§ 480 IRREGULARITIES IN CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 445 

tion which has been commenced is so broken off either by long and 
complicated subordinate propositions, or by parentheses under the 
form of independent propositions (e.g. with nam, enim), that it 
cannot easily, if at all, be continued and concluded in agreement 
with the beginning, the connection being forgotten or no longer 
obvious. In order to show in this case, that the writer returns to 
the beginning which had been interrupted, it is usual to employ one 
of the particles verum, sed, verum tamen, sed tamen (but, as I 
wished to say ; also, sed haec omitto, and similar expressions), or 
igitur, ergo, inqvam (/ say, with a repetition of the leading 
idea), or only a pronoun, which refers back to the leading idea, after 
which the interrupted proposition is repeated and concluded, often 
in a form somewhat altered, so that the original beginning of the 
proposition remains without a corresponding conclusion. Sometimes, 
too, the continuation of the discourse is thus modified, without any 
indication of this kind. This want of strict grammatical coherence 
is called Anacoluthia, and such a proposition an Anacoluihon} Some 
particular kinds of it are found in rhetorical compositions, others of 
a freer character in such as imitate the style of oral discourse ; e.g. 
in dialogues : — 

Qvi potuerunt ista ipsa lege, qvae de proscriptions est (sive 
Valeria est sive Cornelia ; neqve enim novi nee scio), verum ista 
ipsa lege bona Sex. Roscii venire qvi potuerunt ? (Cic. Rose. Am. 
43) . Saepe ego doctos homines — qvid dico " saepe " ? immo, 
nonnunqvam ; saepe enim qvi potui, qvi puer in forum venerim 
neqve inde unqvam diutius qvam qvaestor abfuerim ? — sed ta- 
men audivi, et Athenis qvum essem, doctissimos viros et in Asia 
Scepsium Metrodorum, qvum de his ipsis rebus disputaret (Id. 
de Or. II. 90). Scripsi etiam — nam me jam ab orationibus dis- 
jungo fere referoqve ad mansvetiores Musas, qvae me maxime jam 
a prima adolescentia delectarunt, — scripsi igitur Aristotelio more 
tres libros de oratore (Id. ad Fam. I. 9). Octavio Mamilio Tus- 
culano (is longe princeps Latini nominis erat, si famae credi- 
mus, ab Ulixe deaqve Circe oriundus) ei Mamilio filiam nuptum 
dat (Liv. I. 49). Te alio qvodam modo, non solum natura et 
moribus, verum etiam studio et doctrina esse sapientem, nee 
sicut vulgus, sed ut eruditi solent appellare sapientem qvalem in 



1 ' AvaKO?jOvdia is compounded of the negative a and ano?a)v9icD, to follow. A protasis, 
which wants the regularly corresponding apodosis, has the special name of Anantapodoton 
(uvavTdTTodoTOv). 



446 LATIN GRAMMAR. §481 

Graecia neminem (nam qvi septem appellantur, eos qvi ista sub- 
tilius qvaerunt, in numero sapientium non habent), Athenis unum 
accepimus, et eum qvidem etiam Apollinis oraculo sapientissimum 
judicatum, — hanc esse in te sapientiam existimant, ut omnia tua 
in te posita esse ducas humanosqve casus virtute inferiores 
putes (Cic. Lael. 2). Nam nos omnes, qvibus est alicunde aliqvis 
objectus labos, omne, qvod est interea tempus priusqvam id re- 
scitum est, lucro est (Ter. Hec. III. 1, 6 ; the sentence is not con- 
tinued in the way it should have been after the nominative nos 
omnes). 

O^s. 1. A particular kind of anacoluthia consists in leading the 
reader to expect a combination of two coordinate members (e.g. by et 
— et, neqve — neqve ; duae causae, altera — altera ; primum qvia, 
deinde qvod), but then dwelling so long on the first member, that the 
connection of the sentence is lost, and the second member of the idea is 
subjoined by itself in another way. Multos oratores vidimus, qvi 
neminem imitentur, et suapte natura, qvod velint, sine cujusqvam 
similitudine conseqvantur, qvod et in vobis animadverti recte 
potest, Caesar et Cotta, qvorum alter inusitatum nostris qvidem 
oratoribus leporem qvendam et salem, alter acutissimum et sub- 
tilissimum dicendi genus est consecutus. Neqve vero vester 
aeqvalis Curio qvenqvam mihi magno opere videtur imitari (Cic. 
de Or. II. 23. He had at first intended to say, Qvod et in vobis 
animadverti potest et in aeqvali vestro Curione). 

Obs. 2. If particles which connect subordinate propositions are far 
removed from the proposition which depends upon them, they are some- 
times repeated, especially ut: Verres Archagatho negotium dedit 
ut, qvicqvid Haluntii esset argenti coelati aut si qvid etiam vaso- 
rum Corinthiorum, ut omne statim ad mare ex oppido deporta- 
retur (Cic. Verr. IV. 23). 

§ 481. a. From the grammatical irregularities which have been 
here discussed (in which the construction of words and sentences 
departs from general rules) we must distinguish those peculiarities 
of expression which have to do with the method of conceiving and 
expressing particular thoughts without making any change in the 
inflections or the grammatical construction of words, and are, there- 
fore, only rhetorical peculiarities of style. They are found espe- 
cially in oratorical language, and still more frequently in the poets, 
who by these means sometimes give their language more force and 
animation, and at other times attain greater freedom and facility in 
the structure of their verse. Among these peculiarities we may 



§ 481 IRREGULARITIES IN CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 447 

here notice that way of expression, which is called Hendiadys (sv 
dca dvoh'y one by two), by which a word, which should be connected 
with another substantive as a qualifying word (as an adjective or 
in the genitive), is connected with it by a conjunction as a coordi- 
nate ; e.g. : — 

Pateris libamus et auro (Virg. Georg. II. 192)=pateris aureis, 
or Molem et montes insuper altos imposuit (Id. 2En. I. 61) = mo- 
lem altorum montium. 

Obs. 1. We may refer to the same class the custom (even more strik- 
ing in Latin than in English) of saying that a person does a thing him- 
self which he causes to be done by others (curat faciendum, fieri 
jubet) ; e.g. Piso anulum sibi facere volebat (Cic. Yerr. IV. 25). 
Virgis qvam multos Verres ceciderit, qvid ego commemorem ? 
(Id. ib. V. 53). 

Obs. 2. Another irregularity, in the poets, consists in this, that in 
consequence of the freedom with which the imagination can transfer a 
quality from one object of thought to another (e.g. from a person to an 
action and its result) the adjective is occasionally referred to a different sub- 
ject from that, to which, strictly considered, it appears to belong : Capi- 
tolio regina dementes ruinas parabat (Hor. Od. I. 37, 6) . Sometimes, 
by means of an adjective or participle, a quality is attributed to a person 
or thing, which it does not yet possess, but only acquires as a result of 
the action announced in the proposition ; e.g. premit placida aeqvora 
pontus (Virg. iEn. X. 103) ; i.e. premit ita, ut placida fiant, pre- 
mendo placida fiant. This last idiom is called prolepsis adjectivi, 
the anticipation of an adjective. 

b. Certain discrepancies between the Latin and other languages 
(as, for example, English) are owing to the fact that in particular 
cases one of the languages describes an action in a more circum- 
stantial way than the other, either by using a circumlocution in the 
place of the simple verb, by which the action is, as it were, resolved 
into two, or by repeating the same idea (by a pleonasm) twice. As 
an example of such phraseological peculiarities of Latin (which are 
in general to be learned by practice and from the dictionary) we 
may notice the periphrastic use of facio : — 

Facite, ut non solum mores ejus et arrogantiam, sed etiam vul- 
tum atqve amictum recordemini (Cic. pro Cluent. 40). Faciendum 
mini putavi, ut tuis litteris brevi responderem (Id. ad Fam. III. 
8). Invitus feci, ut L. Flaminium e senatu ejicerem (Id. Cat. M. 
12). In dependent questions after a verb that denotes judgment and 
consideration, the idea to think is often repeated pleonastically : Itinera, 



448 LATIN GRAMMAR. §484 

qvae per hosce annos in Italia nostri imperatores fecerunt, recor- 
damini ; turn facilius statuetis, qvid apud exteras nationes fieri 
existimetis (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 13), what you are to believe happens, 
instead of what happens. In a similar way, it is said, permitto, con- 
cede* (permittitur), ut liceat; e.g. Lex permittit, ut furem noctu 
liceat occidere (Cic. pro Tull. 47) . 



SECOND APPENDIX TO THE SYNTAX. 

OF THE SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF THE PRONOUNS. 

§ 482. The personal pronoun, as a subject, is usually omitted, 
when the person is not emphasized (in contrast with others, or with 
reference to its own character, or because several actions are re- 
ferred to the same subject) : — 

Tu nidum servas, ego laudo ruris amoeni rivos (Hor. Ep. I. 10, 
6) . Et tu apud patres conscriptos contra me dicere ausus es ? 
(Cic. Phil. II. 21). Tu a civitatibus pecunias classis nomine coe- 
gisti, tu pretio remiges dimisisti, tu archipiratam ab oculis om- 
nium removisti (Id. Yerr. V. 52) . 

§ 483. In Latin, an individual not unfrequently speaks of him- 
self in the first person plural, when he thinks more of the condi- 
tion and bearings of the subject under discussion, than of himself 
personally in distinction from others : — 

Reliqvum est, ut de felicitate Pompeji plura dicamus (Cic. pro 
Leg. Man. 16). Qvaerenti mihi, qvanam re possem prodesse 
qvam plurimis, nulla major occurrebat, qvam si optimarum artium 
vias traderem meis civibus, qvod compluribus jam libris me arbi- 
tror consecutum. Nam et cohortati sumus, ut maxime potuimus, 
ad philosophiae studium in eo libro, qvi inscriptus est Hortensius, 
et, qvod genus philosophandi maxime et constans et elegans arbi- 
traremur, qvattuor Academicis libris ostendimus (Id. Div. II. 1). 
Noster is used in the same way, instead of meus. 

Obs. Concerning the redundant personal pronoun with qvidem, see 
below, on the demonstratives, § 489, b. 

§ 484. a. The pronoun is (the indirect demonstrative) is omitted 
as a nominative, when we continue simply to speak of the same 



§ 484 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 449 

person as before without emphasis or contrast ; but it is used when, 
after a short notice of the person of whom we are about to speak, 
we come to the thing which was especially to be said : — 

P. Annius Asellus mortuus est C. Sacerdote praetore. Is qvum 
haberet unicam filiam, earn bonis suis heredem instituit (Cic. Verr. 
I. 41) . So, likewise, the accusative or dative of this pronoun is very 
often omitted, when the word to which it refers is fouud in the same 
grammatical construction in a preceding leading or subordinate proposi- 
tion, or in a preceding proposition with which the proposition to which 
the pronoun belongs is connected by a copulative or disjunctive particle. 
This occurs, however, when the pronoun is not emphatic, and when 
the proposition in which the pronoun belongs is short and simple : 
Fratreni tuum ceteris in rebus laudo, in hac una reprehendere 
cogor. Non obsistam fratris tui voluntati, qvoad honestas patie- 
tur ; favere non potero. Under these circumstances, the accusative is 
also sometimes omitted, where that which is referred to by the pronoun 
precedes in the nominative : Libri, de qvibus scribis, mei non sunt ; 
sumpsi a fratre meo. (The same case is never repeated with two con- 
nected verbs, thus: 1 saw him, and asked him; but vidi eum rogavi- 
qve.) 

b. Is is sometimes followed, not by qvi, but by qvicunqve ; e.g. 
Qvid habeo, qvod faciam, nisi ut earn fortunam, qvaecunqve erit 
tua ducam meam (Cic. pro Mil. 36 = qvae erit tua, qvaecunqve 
erit) or si qvis (is, si qvis = is, qvi, si qvis) ; e.g. Ipse Allie- 
nus ex ea facultate, si qvara habet, aliqvantum detrahet (Cic. Div. 
in Case. 15). 

c. A more precise definition of a word is connected emphatically by 
et is (atqve is, et is qvidem), and that; nee is, and that not : Habet 
homo primum memoriam et earn infinitam rerum innumerabilium 
(Cic. Tusc. I. 24). Uno atqve eo facili proelio caesi ad Antrum 
hostes (Liv. IV. 57). Epicurus una in domo et ea qvidem an- 
gusta qvam magnos qvantaqve amoris conspiratione consentien- 
tes tenuit amicorum greges! (Cic. Finn. I. 20). Erant in Romana 

juventute adolescentes aliqvot, nee ii tenui loco orti, qvorum in 
regno libido solutior fuerat (Liv. II. 3). (If that which is added 
belongs to the predicate and to the assertion in general, the neuter is 
employed, etid; e.g. Apollonium doctum hominem cognovi etstu- 
diis optimis deditum, idqve a puero, Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 16). In 
the same way, we find sed is : Severitatem in senectute probo, sed 
earn, sicut alia, modicam (Cic. Cat. M. 18). l 

1 Hostis et is hostis, qvi — , tribunus et Curio tribunus— , homines ignoti 
atqve ita ignoti, ut — (without qvidem, when the preceding word is repeated with an 
addition which gives emphasis). 

29 



450 * LATIN GRAMMAR. § 485 

§ 485. a. Hie, this, is used to denote what is nearest to the 
speaker in place, time, or thought : — 

Turn primum philosophia, non ilia de natura, qvae fuerat anti- 
qvior, sed haec, in qva de bonis et malis deqve hominum vita 
disputatur, inventa dicitur (Cic. Brut. 8) . Opus vel in hac mag- 
nificentia urbis conspiciendum (Liv. VI. 4), that of the present day, 
of our time. Qvi haec vituperare volunt, Chrysogonum tantum 
posse qveruntur (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 48) , the present state of things. 
Sex. Stola, judex hie noster (Id. pro Flacco), who sits here as judge. 

Ille, that, refers to something more distant (veteres illi, qvi ), but 

often designates what is important or well known : Ex suo regno sic 
Mithridates profugit, ut ex eodem Ponto Medea ilia qvondam 
profugisse dicitur (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 9). (Concerning hie and ille, 
in notices of time, see § 276, Obs. 5.) If two persons or things that 
have been previously named be spoken of, hie is generally referred to 
the last mentioned, ille to the more remote ; e.g. Caesar beneficiis 
atqve munificentia magnus habebatur, integritate vitae Cato. 
Ille mansvetudine et misericordia clarus factus, huic severitas 
dignitatem addiderat (Sail. Cat. 54). But hie, not unfrequently, 
refers not to the last named, but to that which is nearer in thought and 
in its nature : Melior tutiorqve est certa pax, qvam sperata 
victoria, haec (pax) in tua, ilia in deorum potestate est (Liv. 
XXX. 30). 

Obs. What is expressed in the oratio directa by hie is desig- 
nated in the oratio obliqva by ille ; yet hie may sometimes be retained 
with emphasis from the oratio directa. Tu (vos) of the oratio di- 
recta is expressed in repeating the speech of another chiefly by ille, but 
also by is : Caveat, ne illo cunctante Numidae sibi consulant (Sail. 

Jug. 62) = cave, ne te cunctante . Tamen, si obsides ab iis 

sibi dentur, sese cum iis pacem esse facturum (Cass. B. G. I. 14) = 
tamen, si obsides a vobis dantur . 

b. Hie, and especially ille, also refer to something that is to be 
mentioned next (hie being used for what is present, ille for some- 
thing new or well known) : — 

Nonne qvum multa alia mirabilia, turn illud imprimis ? (Cic. 
de Div. I. 10, the following circumstance especially). (On the addition 
of a proposition referring to hie or ille with enim or nam, see § 439, 
Obs. 2.) 

c. Hie is used in relative clauses instead of is (hie, qvi), when the 
thing so described is designated as something near (e.g. haec, qvae a 
nobis hoc qvatriduo disputata sunt, Cic. Tusc. IV. 38) ; otherwise, 
but seldom. 



§487 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OP PRONOUNS. 451 

Obs. We must also notice hie et hie, hie et ille, this and that, this 
or that ; ille et ille, one or two. 

§ 486. Iste is used of that which refers to the person addressed 
(of a thing which is in his neighborhood, relates to him, proceeds 
from him, is mentioned by him, &c.) ; hence iste tuus (iste vester) 
are often found combined, or iste has the same signification as tuus 
(vester) : — 

Ista oratio, that speech (which you make) . Qvaevis mallem causa 
fuisset qvam ista, qvam dicis (Cic. de Or. II. 4). De istis rebus 
exspecto tuas litteras (Id. ad Att. II. 5), concerning what happens 
where you are. Age, nunc isti doceant {those philosophers whom you 
follow) , qvonam modo efllciatur, ut honeste vivere summum 
bonum sit (Id. Finn. IV. 11). 

Yet iste is also used of a thing which is near or present to the 
speaker, but which he (contemptuously) motions from him (as, e.g. 
by the accuser when speaking of the defendant in a court of jus- 
tice), or of a thing which we have ourselves recently named or 
mentioned (and think of as more remote) ; e.g. : — 

Fructum istum laudis, qvi ex perpetua oratione percipi potuit, 
in alia tempora reservemus (Cic. Yerr. A. I. 11). Utinam tibi 
istam mentem dii immortales duint (Id. in Cat. I. 9), Would that 
the gods would give you such a disposition. Si qvid novisti rectius 
istis, candidus imperti ; si non, his utere mecum (Hor. Ep. I. 
6, 67). 

Obs. What is said of the distinction, in meaning, between hie, ille, 
and iste, applies also to the adverbs derived from them. 

§ 487. a. Ipse stands alone (without the addition of is) where the 
emphasis falls in English on self (selves), because it indicates a 
contrast with something else which is distinct from or substituted 
for, to something out of or instead of the person or thing itself: — 

Accipio, qvod dant ; mihi enim satis est ; ipsis non satis (Cic. 
Finn. II. 26). Qvaeram ex ipsa (Id. pro Cael. 14). Parvi de eo, 
qvod ipsis superat, gratificari aliis volunt (Id. Finn. V. 15). (Ipsi, 
qvi scripserunt, the authors themselves. But is ipse, even he, even that, 
that very.) 

Obs. 1. Ipse is to be noticed in the signification of exactly \ precisely : 
Crassus triennio ipso minor erat qvam Antonius (Cic. Brut. 43). 
(Nunc ip$xim,just now; turn ipsum, qvum, precisely at the moment 
when.) 



452 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 488 

Obs. 2. Et ipse stands in the signification also, likewise, when the 
same is said of a new subject, which had been previously said of oth- 
ers : Deinde Crassus, ut intelligere posset Brutus, qvem hominem 
lacessisset, tres et ipse excitavit recitatores (Cic. pro Cluent. 51), 
thereupon Crassus, as his opponent had done, likewise . 

b. In reflective assertions (expressing an action of the subject on 
itself) ipse stands in the same case with the subject (in the nomi- 
native), when it is intended to express what the subject itself does 
(as distinguished from what others do and what is performed by 
the aid of others) ; on the other hand, it stands in the same case 
with the personal or reflective pronoun, when it is indicated that 
the action is exerted upon the subject, and not on other persons : — 

Non egeo medicina ; me ipse consolor (Cic. Lsel. 3) . Valvae 
clausae repagulis subito se ipsae aperuerunt (Cic. Divin. I. 34). 
Cato se ipse interemit (was not killed by others). Junius necem 
sibi ipse conscivit (Id. "N. D. II. 3). Non potest exercitum is 
continere imperator, qvi se ipse non continet (Id. pro Leg. Man. 
13), who does not himself keep himself under control. Tu qvoniam 
rempublicam nosqve conservas, fac, ut diligentissime te ipsum, 
mi Dolabella, custodias (Id. ad Fam. IX. 14). Ea gessimus, ut 
omnibus potius qvam ipsis nobis consuluerimus (Id. Finn. II. 19). 
Sensim tardeve potius nosmetipsos cognoscimus (Id. Finn. V. 
15). Facile, qvod cujusqve temporis officium sit, poterimus, nisi 
nosmetipsos valde amabimus, judicare (Id. Off. I. 9). 

Yet the Latins sometimes use the nominative of ipse, when the 
antithesis might lead us to expect another case (in order to mark 
more emphatically the relation of a person or thing to itself, as at 
once subject and object) : — 

Verres sic erat humilis atqve demissus, ut non modo populo 
Romano, sed etiam sibi ipse condemnatus videretur (Cic. Verr. I. 
6) . Ipse sibi inimicus est (Id. Finn. V. 10) . Se ipsi omnes na- 
tura diligunt (Id. Finn. III. 18). (Ipse is often so used before se and 
sibi.) Secum ipsi loqvuntur (Id. R. P. I. 17). (Crassus et Anto- 
nius ex scriptis cognosci ipsi suis non potuerunt, Cic. de Or. II. 2, 
from their own writings. Ipse per se, per se ipse, in and of him- 
self.) 

§ 488. Idem is often used where something new is said of a per- 
son or thing already mentioned, to denote either similarity (likewise^ 
also, at the same time) or a contrast {yet, on the other hand) : — 



§ 489 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 453 

Thorius utebatur eo cibo, qvi et svavissimus esset et idem 
facillimus ad concoqvendum (Cic. Finn. II. 20) . Nihil utile, qvod 
non idem honestum (Id. Off. III. 7). P. Africanus eloqventia 
cumulavit bellicam laudem, qvod idem fecit Timotheus, Cononis 
films (Id. Off. I. 32). Etiam patriae hoc munus debere videris, 
ut ea, qvae salva per te est, per te eundem sit ornata (Id. Legg. I. 
2) . Inventi multi sunt, qvi vitam profundere pro patria parati 
essent, iidem (but on the other hand) gloriae jacturam ne minimam 
qvidem facere vellent (Id. Off. I. 24). Epicurus, qvum (while) opti- 
mamet praestantissimam naturam dei dicat esse,negat idem esse 
in deo gratiam (Id. K D. I. 43). 

§ 489. A demonstrative pronoun is used redundantly in certain 
combinations : — • 

a. When a substantive or a pronoun has been separated from its predi- 
cate or governing verb by an intervening proposition (especially a relative 
proposition), it is sometimes emphatically recalled to mind by the pronoun 
is (rarely hie, where an antithesis is to be made very prominent) : 
Plebem et infimam multitudinem, qvae P. Clodio duce fortunis 
vestris imminebat, earn Milo, qvo tutior esset vestra vita, tribus 
suis patrimoniis delenivit (Cic. pro Mil. 35). Haec ipsa, qvae 
nunc ad me delegare vis, ea semper in te eximia et praestantia 
fuerunt (Id. de Or. II. 28). Agrum Campanum, qvi qvum de vec- 
tigalibus eximebatur, ut militibus daretur, tamen infligi magnum 
reipublicae vulnus putabamus, hunc tu compransoribus tuis et 
collusoribus dividebas (Id. Phil. II. 39). (This idiom involves a kind 
of anacoluthia. See § 480.) 

Obs. 1. In a similar way, hie and ille are inserted in comparisons: 
Ingeniosi, ut aes Corinthium in aeruginem, sic illi in morbum inci- 
dunt tardius (Cic. Tusc. IV. 14). 

Obs. 2. Sometimes a subject, without being separated from its predi- 
cate, is emphatically distinguished from others by the addition of is (or 
is vero) : Ista animi tranqvillitas ea est ipsa beata vita (Cic. Finn. 
V. 8) . Sed urbana plebs ea vero praeceps ierat multis de causis 
(Sail. Cat. 37). 

b. When the participle qvidem stands with a concessive signification 
(indeed, to be sure) with a predicate (verb or adjective), with sed follow- 
ing, it is, in the best writers, not connected immediately with the verb or 
adjective, but a pronoun is inserted before qvidem, which corresponds to 
the word of which the predicate is conceded ; namely, eqvidem (for ego 
qvidem), nos qvidem, tu qvidem, vos qvidem, ille (more rarely, is) 
qvidem : Reliqva non eqvidem contemno, sed plus tamen habent 
spei qvam timoris (Cic. ad Q. Fr. II. 16) , the rest I do not, indeed, de- 



454 LATIN GRAMMAR. §490 

spise, but . Oratorias exercitationes non tu qvidem reliqvisti, 

sed certe philosophiam illis anteposuisti (Id. de Fat. 2) . P. Scipio 
non multum ille qvidem nee saepe dicebat, sed omnes sale face- 
tiisqve superabat (Id. Brut. 34). Ludo autem et joco uti illo qvi- 
dem licet, sed turn, qvum gravibus seriisqve rebus satisfecerimus 
(Id. Off. I. 29) . Sapientiae studium vetus id qvidem in nostris, 
sed tamen ante Laelii aetatem et Scipionis non reperio, qvos 
appellare possim nominatim (Id. Tusc. IV. 3). Libri scripti in- 
considerate ab optimis illis qvidem viris, sed non satis eruditis 

(Id. ib. I. 3), by men, who were, to be sure . Cyri vitam et disci- 

plinam legunt, praeclaram illam qvidem, sed non tarn aptam rebus 
nostris (Id. Brut. 29) . (Less usually : Proposuit qvidem legem, 
sed minutissimis litteris et angustissimo loco, Svet. Cal. 41). 

§ 490. a. The Reflective Pronoun and the possessive suus 
derived from it refer back to the subject, like the word self: — 

Ipse se qvisqve diligit (Cic. Lael. 21). Bestiis homines uti pos- 
sunt ad suam utilitatem (Id. Finn. III. 20). Fabius a me diligitur 
propter summam suam humanitatem et observantiam (Id. ad Fam. 
XV. 14). Cui proposita est conservatio sui (the preservation of 
himself, self-preservation = conservare se) necesse est huic partes 
qvoqve sui caras esse (Id. Finn. V. 13). Concerning the second sui, 
see, under b. Si pater familias, liberis suis a servo interfectis, sup- 
plicium de servo non sumpserit crudelissimus videatur (Id. in 
Cat. IV. 6) . (Inter se, mutually, one another, together, may refer also to 
the direct or remote object : Etiam feras inter se partus et educatio 
conciliat, Cic. Rose. Am. 22. So, likewise, ipsum per se, ipsi 
per se.) 

b. Suus may also refer to some other substantive in the sen- 
tence, especially to the direct or remote object. Sometimes, how- 
ever, it refers to other cases also, when the mutual relation of the 
word with which SUUS agrees, and the one to which it refers, is em- 
phasized with respect to the assertion of the proposition, as by his 
own, her own. in English. It is found (even when it cannot be so 
translated) especially where the word to which it refers denotes the 
proper logical subject (the person whose fate, course of conduct, 
&c, are spoken of) ; also, when a distributive relation is indicated 
by the help of qvisqve, or an activity of the person indicated with 
respect to that which is represented by the word with which suus 
agrees : — 



§490 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 455 

Hannibalem sui cives e civitate ejecerunt (Cic. pro Sest. 68). 
Suis flammis delete Fidenas (Liv. IV. 33) . Si ceteris recte facta 
sua prosunt, mini mea ne qvando obsint, providete (Cic. in Cat. 
III. 12). Fides sua sociis parum felix in praesentia fuit (Liv. 
III. 7). Desinant insidiari domi suae consuli (Cic. in Cat. I. 13). 
Volscis levatis metu suum rediit ingenium (Liv. II. 22), their cus- 
tomary, peculiar character. Justitia suum cuiqve distribuit (Cic. 
N. D. III. 15). Sua cujusqvc animantis natura est (Id. Finn. V. 
9). Catilina admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae 

(Sail. Cat. 21 = jubebat cogitare de sua , where suus refers to the 

subject of cogitare). Dicaearchum cum Aristoxeno, aeqvali et 
condiscipulo suo, doctos sane homines, omittamus (Id. Tusc. I. 
18), with Ids fellow-pupil, so that he may take his fellow-pupil with him. 
But Omitto Isocratem discipulosqve ejus,Ephorum et Naucratem 
(Cic. Or. 51). Pisonem nostrum merito ejus amo plurimum (Id. 
ad Fam. XIY. 2) . Verri de eadem re litterae complures a multis 
ejus amicis afferuntur (Id. Yerr. II. 39). Deum agnoscis ez operi- 
bus ejus (Id. Tusc. I. 28). 

Obs. Suus, his (her, their) own, may even be referred to the person 
or thing generally treated of in the discourse, though it be not ex- 
pressly named in the same proposition : Mater qvod svasit sua, ado- 
lescens mulier fecit (Ter. Hec. IY. 4, 38). Is annus omnem 
Crassi spem atqve omnia vitae consilia morte pervertit Fuit hoc 
luctuosum suis (to his friends), acerbum patriae, grave bonis omni- 
bus (Cic. deOr. III. 2). 

Co Se and suus in subordinate propositions refer not only to the 
subject in the same proposition, but also to the subject of the lead- 
ing proposition, or of the word (a participle, for instance, on which 
the subordinate proposition depends), when the dependent proposi- 
tion is stated as the sentiment of this subject. This is always the 
case with accusatives with the infinitive, with propositions which 
denote the object of an exertion and effort (§§ 372 and 375), with 
propositions expressing an object and dependent questions, and with 
such relative and other subordinate propositions as are designated 
by the subjunctive as the sentiments of another (§§ 368 and 
369): — 

Sentit animus se vi sua, non aliena moveri (Cic. Tusc. I. 23). 
(After a general infinitive : Haec est una omnis sapientia, non arbi- 
trari sese scire, qvod nesciat, not to think that one knows (Cic. Acad. 
I. 4) . Oravit me pater, ut ad se venirem. Id ea de causa Caesar 
fecit, ne se hostes occupation opprimerent Exposuit, cur ea res 



456 LATIN GRAMMAR. §490 

parum sibi placeret. Solo Pisistrato qvaerenti, qva spe fretus 
sibi obsisteret, respondit senectute (Cic. Cat. M. 20). Accusat 
amicos, qvod se non adjuverint. Ariovistus respondet, si qvid 
Caesar se velit, ilium ad se venire oportere (Cses. B. G. I. 34:). 
Legati Caerites Deos rogaverunt, ut Romanos florentes ea sui (sc. 
Caeritum) misericordia caperet, qvae se rebus affectis qvondam 
populi Romani cepisset (Liv. VII. 20). Paetus omnes libros, 
qvos frater suus reliqvisset, mini donavit (Cic. ad Att. II. 1). 
Turn ei dormienti idem ille visus est rogare, ut, qvoniam sibi vivo 
non subvenisset, mortem suam ne inultam esse pateretur (Id. Div. 
I. 27). -ffidui se victis ceteros incolumes fore negant ( = si ipsi 
victi sint, si hostes se vicerint). 

Obs. 1. Se and suus are also referred to the person in the leading 
proposition, whose language or sentiments are expressed in the sub- 
ordinate, even when this person is not the grammatical subject of the 
former : Jam inde ab initio Faustulo spes fuerat, regiam stirpem 
apud se educari (Liv. I. 5) . A Caesare valde liberaliter invitor, 
sibi ut sim legatus (Cic. ad Att. II. 18). 

Obs. 2. Sometimes nothing but the connection can show whether se 
(suus) refers to the subject of the leading proposition or that of the 
subordinate ; e.g. Hortensius ex Verre qvaesivit, cur suos (i.e. Hor- 
tensii) familiarissimos rejici passus esset (Cic. Verr. I. 7). Se 
and suus are even found in the same proposition, so used that one refers 
to the nearest subject, while the other refers to the subject of the leading 
proposition : Livius Salinator Q. Fabium Maximum rogavit, ut 
meminisset, opera sua (sc. Livii) se (sc. Fabium) Tarentum re- 
cepisse (Cic. de Or. II. 67). Romani legatos in Bithyniam mise- 
runt, qvi a Prusia rege peterent ne inimicissimum suum (sc. Ro- 
manorum) apud se haberet (Corn. Hann. 12). 

Obs. 3. We find, however, in the Latin authors, some passsages less 
carefully written, where the subordinate proposition either necessarily 
expresses an idea conceived by the leading subject (as, for example, 
object-clauses), or is shown to be such by the use of the subjunctive, 
and where, notwithstanding, is, ejus is used instead of se, suus, of the 
person which is the subject of the leading proposition. (This never oc- 
curs in an accusative with the infinitive which is immediately connected 
with the leading proposition). On the other hand, there are also found 
some few passages where se and suus are employed, though there is no 
subjunctive to indicate that the sentiments expressed are those of 
another : Helvetii persvadent Rauracis et Tulingis, uti, eodem usi 
consilio, oppidis suis vicisqve exustis, una cum iis proficiscantur 
(Caes. B. G. I. 5). Audistis nuper dicere legatos Tyndaritanos, 
Mercurium, qvi sacris anniversariis apud eos coleretur, Verris 



§ 491 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 457 

imperio esse sublatum (Cic. Verr. IV. 39). Chrysogonus hunc 
sibi ex animo scrupulum, qvi se diesqve noctesqve stimulat ac 
pungit, ut evellatis, postulat (Cic. Rose. Am. 2). Metellus in iis 
urbibus, qvae ad se defecerant, praesidia imponit (Sail. Jug. 61). 
Patres nil rectum, nisi qvod placuit sibi, ducunt (Hor. Ep. II. 
1, 83). Thus, we find both qvanturn in se est, erat (so far as it 
rests, rested, icith him), and (more correctly) qvanturn in ipso est, 
erat. 

Obs. 4. Ipse for se ipsum, sibi ipsi, &c. (in a subordinate proposi- 
tion, referring to the subject of the leading proposition) , is found in the 
best writers in a few passages, where the word self is to be made promi- 
nent : Sunt qvi se recusare negent qvominus, ipsis mortuis, terra- 
rum omnium deflagratio conseqvatur (Cic. Finn. III. 19). 1 

Obs. 5. Se and suus sometimes stand in universal assertions, without 
being referred to a definite subject preceding, in the signification one^s 
self: Negligere, qvid de se {of one) qvisqve sentiat, non solum ar- 
rogantis est, sed etiam omnino dissoluti (Cic. Off. I. 28). 

Obs. 6. Instead of se (sibi) inter se, mutually, one another, it is 
usual to say only inter se, omitting the object : Veri amici non solum 
colent inter se ac diligent, sed etiam verebuntur (Cic. Lsel. 22). 
(Inter nos = nos or nobis inter nos ; inter vos.) 

§ 491. The possessive pronouns (pronominal adjectives) may be 
omitted in Latin, when the relation which they would express is 
easily ascertained from the context (especially, therefore, where 
they serve to refer a thing to the subject, but sometimes, also, where 
they would point to the direct or remote object), and when no kind 
of emphasis rests on the possessive as a qualifying word: — 

Patrem amisi, qvum qvartum annum agebam, matrem, qvum 
sextum (amisit — agebat). Roga parentes (sc. tuos). Manus 
lava et coena ! Frater meus amatur ab omnibus propter sum- 
mam morum svavitatem. Patris animum mini reconciliasti (sc. 
mei). Yet suus is also not unfrequently used, where it might have been 
omitted. 

Obs. 1. The possessive pronoun designates, in certain combinations 
(e.g. with tempus, locus, deus, numen), that which is suitable, correct, 
or favorable, for a person or thing. Suo loco, suo tempore. Loco 
aeqvo, tempore tuo pugnasti (Liv. XXXVIII. 45). Vadimus non 
numine nostro (Virg. JEn. II. 39G). 

i In later authors (e.g. L. Seneca and Curtius), ipsum is found here and there instead of 
se in the accusative with the infinitive : Sciunt ipsos omnia habere communia (Sen. 
ep. 6). Macedonum reges credunt ab illo deo ipsos goenus ducere (Curt. 
IV. 7). 



458 LATIN GRAMMAR. §493 

Obs. 2. Concerning nulla tua epistola {from you), mea unius opera, 
see § 297, a. (Iniqvo suo tempore, Liv. II. 23.) 

§ 492. On the Interrogative Pronouns the following obser- 
vations may be made. 

a. The Latins can combine two interrogative pronouns in one 
proposition in such a way, that a question is asked both concerning 
the subject and the object : — 

Considera, qvis qvem fraudasse dicatur (Cic. pro Rose. Com. 7), 
who is said to have defrauded, and whom he is said to have defrauded. 
Nihil jam aliud qvaerere judices debetis, nisi uter utri insidias 
fecerit (Id. pro Mil. 9), which of these two laid a plot for the other. 

Obs. Concerning the interrogative with a participle, see § 424, Obs. 
3, and § 428, Obs. 7. 

b. An interrogative exclamation of surprise (at the greatness of 
a thing, &c.) is expressed affirmatively : — 

Qvam multos scriptores rerum suarum magnus ille Alexander 
secum habuisse dicitur! (Cic. pro Arch. 10). Hie vero adolescens 
qvum eqvitaret cum suis delectis eqvitibus, qvos concursus facere 
solebat ! qvam se jactare ! (Id. pro Dej. 10). (If non is introduced, 
the surprise or the question applies to the negative idea : Qvam id te, 
di boni, non decebat ! How ill it became you! Cic. Phil. II. 8.) 

Obs. 1. Concerning the use of dependent questions with a pronoun, 
it may here also be observed, that in English the object of a communica- 
tion or question is sometimes expressed by a substantive with a relative 
proposition attached to it, a construction which is not usual, in Latin, 
an interrogative proposition being employed instead ; e.g. I told him of 
the progress which the boy had made, narravi ei, qvos progressus puer 
fecisset. Writers are not agreed as to the motives which induced Tiberius 
to take this step, qvae Tiberium causae impulerint, scriptores non 
consentiunt. (Non poenitet, qvantum profecerim, I am not dissat- 
isfied with the progress which I have made.) 

Obs. 2. A direct question respecting the reason or motive of an action 
is expressed by the pronominal adverb cur ; qvare is used only in de- 
pendent propositions, and usually after expressions which indicate a 
motive (§ 372, b, Obs. 6. Compare § 440, b, Obs. 1). Qvidni is used 
only with the subjunctive, to signify why should not ? (§ 353) . 

§ 493. a. Of the Indefinite Pronouns aliqvis denotes in the 
most general way some one, some thing, a single undefined person 
or thing : — 



§493 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 459 

Fecit hoc aliqvis tui similis. Si mihi esset obtemperatum, si non 
optimam, at aliqvam rempublicam, qvae nunc nulla est, haberemus 
(Cic. Off. 1. 11). Ut tarda aliqva et langvida pecus (Id. Finn. II. 13) . 
Declamabam saepe cum M. Pisone et cum Q. Pompejo aut cum 
aliqvo qvotidie (Id. Brut. 90), or some other person (nearly equiva- 
lent to alius aliqvis, though the word itself does not bear this significa- 
tion). (Est aliqvid, it is yet something, not so absolutely nothing.) 
Qvis has the same signification (dicat qvis, dicat aliqvis, one might 
say), but is used where an indefinite subject or object is to be designated 
very slightly, and without emphasis (one) ; e.g. Fieri potest, ut recte 
qvis sentiat, et id, qvod sentit, polite eloqvi non possit (Cic. Tusc. 

I. 3) ; especially in relative propositions (xohat one, &c), after qvum 
{when one) , and usually after si, nisi, ne, num : Qvo qvis versutior 
et callidior est, hoc invisior et suspectior (Cic. Off. II. 9). Ulis 
promissis standum non est, qvae coactus qvis metu, qvae de- 
ceptus dolo promisit (Id. ib. I. 10). Si qvam repperero causam, 
indicabo. Galli legibus sanctum habent, ut si qvis qvid de repub- 
lica a finitimis rumore ac fama acceperit, uti ad magistratum de- 
ferat (Cses. B. G. VI. 20). Vereor, no qvid subsit doli. (Sicubi 
accidit, ne qvando fiat, &c.) 

Obs. 1. Yet we find aliqvis, and the words derived from it, not unfre- 
quently after si, and sometimes after ne, especially if some emphasis 
rests on the pronoun (somewhat, a certain measure, in opposition to 
much, little, all) : Si aliqvid de summa gravitate Pompejus, si mul- 
tum de cupiditate Caesar remisisset, pacem stabilem nobis habere 
licuisset (Cic. Phil. XIII. 1). Timebat Pompejus omnia, ne vos 
aliqvid timeretis (Id. pro Mil. 24). Si aliqvando (on a single occa- 
sion) tacent omnes, turn sortito coguntur dicere (Id. Verr. IV. 
64). 

Obs. 2. The plural of aliqvis is aliqvi ; aliqvot is used only when a 
certain number is thought of. 

h. ftvispiam is also employed, like qvis, to denote a single person 
or thing which is quite indefinite (dicat qvispiam), but not so abso- 
lutely without emphasis : — 

Forsitan aliqvis aliqvando ejusmodi qvidpiam fecerit (Cic. Verr. 

II. 32). Communi consvetudine sermonis abutimur, qvum ita 
dicimus, velle aliqvid qvempiam aut nolle sine causa (Id. de 
Fat. 11). 

c. ftvidam is a certain one (a definite person or thing, of which, 
however, a more precise notice is unnecessary) : — 



460 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 494 

Qvidam ex advocatis, homo summa virtute praeditus, intelligere 
se dixit, non id agi, ut verum inveniretur (Cic. pro Cluent. 63). 
Habitant hie qvaedam mulierculae (Ter. Ad. IV. 5, 13) . Hoc non 
facio, ut fortasse qvibusdam videor, simulatione (Cic. ad Fam. I. 
8) . (On its use in combination with qvasi, when a name is made use 
of that is not strictly appropriate, see § 444, a, Obs. 2.) (Certus qvi- 
dam, a certain definite individual.} 

Obs. By nonnemo, one or two, some {few) definite but unnamed 
persons are always indicated : Video de istis, qvi se populares haberi 
volunt, abesse nonneminem. Is (Cic. in Cat. IV. 5 ; the dis- 
course is continued with is, because nonnemo, grammatically considered, 
is in the singular) . Nonnihil, somewhat (most frequently as an adverb : 
Nonnihil timeo, nonnihil miror, &c). Nonnullus (adj.), not ex- 
actly none, some, a part. 

§ 494 a. The substantive qvisqvam and the adjective ullus 
(which sometimes stands as a substantive, see § 90, Obs., and in 
the plural is both a substantive and adjective) denote any one what- 
ever, any at all, even if it were only a single individual, whoever 
or whatever it may be, and express an affirmative idea in the 
most general way, without conveying the notion of a distinct per- 
son or thing. Qvisqvam and ullus are used, therefore (first) in 
negative propositions and in questions which have the force of a 
negative, where the negation is universal and relates to the whole 
proposition, and after the preposition sine : — 

Sine sociis nemo qvidqvam tale conatur (Cic. Lasl. 12). Justi- 
tia nunqvam nocet cuiqvam, qvi earn habet (Id. Finn. I. 16). 
Sine virtute neqve amicitiam neqve ullam rem expetendam conse- 
qvi possumus (Id. Lael. 22). (The negative word must always pre- 
cede.) Sine ullo auxilio (without any help whatever, destitute of all 
aid). 1 Tu me existimas ab ullo malle mea legi probariqve qvam 
ate? (Cic. ad Att. 'IV. 5). Qvid est, qvod qvisqvam dignum Poni- 
pejo afferre possit? (Id. pro Leg. Man. 11). Qvisqvamne istuc 
negat? (Id. N. D. III. 28). So likewise, Qvasi vero qvisqvam vir 
excellenti animo in rempublicam ingressus optabilius qvidqvam 
arbitretur qvam se a suis civibus reipublicae causa diligi (Cic. in 
Vat. 3 = nemo arbitratur). Desitum est videri qvidqvam in socios 
iniqvum, qvum exstitisset in cives tanta crudelitas (Id. Off. II. 8 
= Nihil jam iniqvum videbatur). 



1 Sine omni timore (Ter. Andr. II. 3, 17), is a very unusual form of expression. (Ne 
sine omni qvidem sapientia, Cic. de Or. II. 1, without the whole compass of philosophy. 



§ 494 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 461 

Obs. 1. If, on the other hand, the sense only requires the negation of 
some one particular affirmative idea, aliqvis or qvispiam is made use 
of: Non ob ipsius aliqvod delictum (Cic. pro Balb. 28), not on ac- 
count of this or that crime committed by himself. Vidi, fore, ut ali- 
qvando non Torqvatus neqve Torqvati qvispiam similis, sed 
aliqvis bonorum hostis aliter indicata haec esse dicer et (Id. pro 
Sull. 14). In the same way, ne qvis, ne qvid, &c, are commonly 
employed. (Ne qvis unqvam. Ne qvisqvam, that no one, whoever 
it may be ; Metellus edixit, ne qvisqvam in castris panem aut 
qvem alium coctum cibum venderet, Sail. Jug. 45.) Qvisqvam 
(ullus) is also not used, when the negation applies, not to the whole 
proposition, but to a single word with which it is combined, so as to form 
one negative idea : Qvum aliqvid non habeas, when one has not this or 
that thing (Cic. Tusc. I. 36) ; or when two negations cancel each other : 
Nemo vir magnus sine aliqvo amatu divino unqvam fuit (Cic. N. 
D. II. 66) . Non sine aliqvo incommodo. Hi philosophi mancam 
fore putaverunt sine aliqva accessione virtutem (Cic. Finn. III. 9 
== nisi adjungeretur aliqva accessio). (Ne illi qvidem, qvi male- 
ficio et scelere pascuntur, possunt sine ulla particula justitiae 
vivere, without any 'particle whatever, Cic. Off. II. 11.) 

Obs. 2. In a negative proposition with qvisqvam, the predicate may 
be completed with an unemphatic aliqvis or qvispiam : Ne suspicari 
qvidem possumus, qvenqvam horum ab amico qvidpiam con- 
tendisse, qvod contra rempublicam esset (Cic. Lael. 11). 

b. Further, qvisqvam (ullus) is used with emphasis in other 
propositions to signify any one whatever, any one at all, as well as 
after comparatives (in the latter case it is invariably employed; 
e.g. taetrior tyrannus qvam qvisqvam superiorum), in conditional 
and relative propositions, where the condition and the qualification 
expressed by the relative clause are to have the broadest possible 
scope and bearing, and in general expressions of disapprobation : — 

Aut enim nemo, qvod qvidem magis credo, aut, si qvisqvam 
ille sapiens fuit (Cic. Lsel. 2). Si tempus est ullum jure hominis 
necandi, certe illud est non modo justum, verum etiam necessa- 
rium, qvum vi vis illata defenditur (Id. pro Mil. 4), if there be any 
time whatever. 1 Qvamdiu qvisqvam erit, qvi te defendere audeat 
vives (Id. in Cat. I. 2), so long as there is any one, whoever it may be. 
Dum presidia ulla fuerunt, Roscius in Sullae praesidiis fuit (Id. 
Rose. Am. 43). Cuivis potest accidere, qvod cuiqvam potest 
(Sen. de Tranq. An. 11). Laberis, qvod qvidqvam stabile in regno 



1 [Qvae nee potest uUa esse, nee debet (Cic. Tusc. ill. 6).] 



462 LATIN GRAMMAR. §494 

putas (Cic. Phil. VIII. 4). Nihil est exitiosius civitatibus, qvam 
qvidqvam agi per vim (Id. Legg. III. 18). Indignor, qvidqvam 
reprehendi, non qvia crasse compositum illepideve putetur, sed 
qvia nuper (Hor. Ep. II. 1, 76). 

Ojbs. 1. What is true of qvisqvam is true also of the corresponding 
adverbs (unqvam, usqvam, as these adverbs are distinguished from ali- 
qvando, alicubi, aliqvo, uspiam) : Bellum maxime memorabile 
omniuni, qvae unqvam gesta sunt (Liv. XXI. 1). 

Obs. 2. In some cases, it rests with the speaker to make what he says 
emphatic and absolute by using qvisqvam, or to use aliqvis instead : 
Si qva me res Romam adduxerit, enitar, si qvo modo potero (if 
I can do it in one way or another), ut praeter te nemo dolorem meum 
sentiat; si ullo modo poterit (if it is at all possible), ne tu qvidem 
(Cic. ad Att. XII. 23). Portentum atqve monstrum certissimum 
est, esse aliqvem humana figura, qvi eos propter qvos hanc lucem 
aspexerit, luco privarit (Cic. Rose. Am. 22) ; it might also be ex- 
pressed esse qvenqvam ). 

Obs. 3. With respect to nullus (which corresponds to ullus), it is to 
be observed that nullius and nullo sometimes (but rarely, and never in 
the best prose-writers) , serve as a substitute for the genitive and ablative 
of nihil: Graeci praeter laudem nullius avari (Hor. A. P. 324). Deus 
nullo magis hominem separavit a ceteris animalibus qvam dicendi 
facultate (Qvinct. II. 16, 12). Usually, nullius rei, nulla re. For 
nihili is only used as genitive of price (§ 294) ; nihilo only as an abla- 
tive of price, with comparatives (§ 270 ; nihilo melior, n. magis, n. 
minus) and with the prepositions ab, de, ex, pro, when it means nothing 
in the abstract and absolutely (ex nihilo, de nihilo nasci ; but ex nulla 
re melius IntelligLtur, from no single thing). In like manner, nihilum 
is used with ad and in (ad nihilum redigere, but ad nullam rem 
utilis). Non ullus, non unqvam, instead of nullus, nunqvam, is rare 
in prose. 

Obs. 4. An indefinite pronoun, which is the antecedent to a relative, 
is sometimes omitted. See § 322. 

Obs. 5. In English, a proposition is sometimes made indefinite or 
general by the use of the very indefinite subject, one. Much more fre- 
quent is the similar use of man in German, and on in French. The 
Latin language, having no corresponding pronoun, represents its force by 
a variety of methods, — (1) by the passive : e.g. rex hie valde diligitur 
(here one loves, or, more commonly, they lone the king) ; (2) by imper- 
sonal verbs : e.g. non licet (one may not) ; invidetur mihi ; solet dici 
(see § 218, a and c, and Obs. 2, under d) ; (3) by the use of the third 
person plural (see § 211, a, Obs. 2 = homines solent) ; (4) or the first 
person plural, where something indefinite is true of the speaker : e.g. 



§495 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 463 

qvae volumus credimus libenter (Cags. B. C. II. 27) ; (5) by the use 
of qvis, aliqvid (dicat aliqvis) ; (6) by the second person singular 
of the subjunctive (see § 370, and Obs. 2) ; (7) by the third person 
singular without a definite subject in subordinate propositions depending 
on an infinitive (see § 388, b, Obs. 2) ; and finally (8) by the use of se 
in an accusative with the infinitive after an indefinite infinitive (§ 490, c) . 
It is to be observed, moreover, that inqvit is used without a definite 
subject (one says) , when the speaker introduces an objection or reply 
which is wont to be made to what he says : Iidem si puer parvus occi- 
dit aeqvo animo ferendum putant. Atqvi ab hoc acerbius exegit 
natura qvod dederat. Nondum gustaverat, inqvit, vitae svavita- 
tem (Cic. Tusc. I. 39). 

§ 495. Qvisqve signifies each in particular, by himself (distribu- 
tively) : — 

Suus cuiqve honos habetur. Suae qvemqve fortunae maxime 
poenitet (Cic. ad Fam. VI. 1). Sibi qvisqve mazime consulit. 
(Se and suus stand before qvisqve, in prose.) 1 

When a relative and demonstrative proposition are combined, 
qvisqve almost always stands in the relative proposition, commonly 
(without emphasis) immediately after the relative, so that even se 
and suus stand after qvisqve : — 

Qvam qvisqve norit artem, in hac se exerceat (Cic. Tusc. I. 18). 
Qvanti qvisqve se ipse facit, tanti fiat ab amicis (Id. Lael. 16). 
(Ineunte adolescentia id sibi qvisqve genus aetatis degendae con- 
stituit, qvod amavit, Cic. Off. I. 32. Sometimes qvisqve is re- 
peated; as, Qvod cuiqve obtigit, id qvisqve teneat, Id. ib. I. 7.) 

This pronoun is also used in order to denote a general relation and 
proportion applicable to each individual person or thing (to each 
case) in particular, where we employ in English the words any one, 
a man, a thing : — 

Qvo qvisqve est sollertior et ingeniosior, hoc docet iracundius 
et laboriosius (Cic. pro Rose. Com. 11). Ut qvisqve maxime ad 
suum commodum refert, qvaecunqve agit, ita ininime est vir 
bonus (Cic. Legg. I. 18. It very often stands in this way with the 
superlative with ut — ita). Ut qvisqve me viderat, narrabat (Cic. 
Verr. A. I. 7), as often as any one saw me . 2 

1 Such examples as the following are rare : Transfugas Hannibal in civitates 
qvemqve suas dimisit (Liv. XXI. 48), where instead of suas the substantive is put first 
for the sake of emphasis. Qvod est cujusqve maxime suum (Cic. Off. I. 31, each 
one's own). 

2 The later writers also say ut qvis. 



464 LATIN GRAMMAR. §496 

In this signification (of a universal relation, which manifests itself 
in each individual) it is frequently combined with a superlative, 
which always precedes it : — 

Maximae cuiqve fortunae minime credendum est (Liv. XXX. 

30) , the highest fortune is always the least to be trusted ; each fortune 
is to be least trusted in proportion as it is the highest. Optimum qvid- 
qve rarissimum est (Cic. Finn. II. 25). Ex philosophis optimus 
et gravissimus qvisqve confitetur multa se ignorare (Id. Tusc. III. 
28), all good philosophers. (In the earlier and good writers, the singu- 
lar is chiefly used in this way, but the plural also in the neuter.) (Deci- 
mus qvisqve, § 74, Obs. 2. Primus qvisqve, each successive first one, 
each as it stands first after the preceding one has been taken, i.e. one after 
the other, successively : Primum qvidqve consideremus, Cic. N. D. 
I. 27.) 

Obs. 1. On the other hand, qvisqve never signifies every one taken 
collectively ; this is expressed by omnes or nemo non, or by qvivis, 
signifying every one, whoever it may be : Caeterarum rerum perspi- 
cuum est, qvo qvaeqve discedat (each for itself) ; abeunt enim 
omnia illuc unde orta sunt (Cic. Cat. M. 22). (Yet we find the 
expression cujusqvemodi, of every kind you please.) Unusqvisqve, 
every one, is used like the corresponding phrase in English. (The older 
writers have sometimes used qvidqvid for qvidqve ; e.g. ut qvidqvid 
objectum est, Cic. Tusc. V. 34.) 

Obs. 2. Each of two by himself (herself, itself) may be expressed by 
uterqve; e.g. Natura hominis dividitur in animum et corpus. 
Qvum eorum utrumqve per se expetendum sit, virtutes qvoqve 
utriusqve per se expetendae sunt (Cic. Finn. IY. 7). Qvisqve, 
however, is used in combination with suus: Duas civitates ex una 
factas ; suos cuiqve parti magistratus, suas leges esse (Liv. II. 44) . 
Concerning uterqve nostrum (veniet), uterqve frater, see § 284, Obs. 
3 ; concerning uterqve sometimes used as a collective with the plural, 
§ 215, a. It may here be observed, that the plural utriqve (which with 
these exceptions denotes two pluralities, § 84, Obs.) is sometimes used 
irregularly of two individual persons or things, hi utriqve being then 
used for horum uterqve : Duae fuerunt Ariovisti uxores, utraeqve 
in ea fuga perierunt (Cses. B. G. I. 53). Agitabatur animus ferox 
Catilinae inopia rei familiaris et conscientia scelerum, qvae 
utraqve (= qvorum utrumqve) his artibus, qvas supra memoravi, 
auxerat (Sail. Cat. 5). Utraqve cornua (Liv. XXX. 8). Utrumqve, 
both (without reference to the gender of the single words) . 

§ 496. Of alius and alter it is to be observed, that the Latins 
use alter, where one more is mentioned besides one that has been 



§496 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 465 

spoken of (in opposition to that alone and by itself), where in Eng- 
lish we use the word another ; e.g. : — 

Solus - , aut cum altero (Cic. ad Att. XI. 15; also, unus aut sum- 
mum alter ; unus, alter, plures) . Ne sit te ditior alter (Hor. Sat. 
I. 1, 40.) Nulla vitae pars, neqve si tecum agas qvid, neqve si 
cum altero contrahas, vacare officio potest (Cic. Off. I. 2). In this 
way alter is often used as equivalent to neighbor, one's fellow-man. 
Fontejus Antonii, non ut magis alter, amicus erat (Hor. Sat. I. 5, 
33). (But we also find : ut non magis qvisqvam alius, Id. Sat. II. 8, 
49.) Alter Nero, another Nero, a second (the second) Nero. (On the 
other hand alter can never have the signification of difference, which is 
expressed by alius.) 

Obs. 1. Alius when repeated signifies one — another (aliud ex alio 
malum ; aliud hie homo loqvitur, aliud sentit ; alii Romam versus, 
alii in Campaniam, alii in Etruriam proficiscebantur) ; in the same 
way alter — alter is used of two, the one — the other (also unus — alter) . 
But the repetition of alius, or alius with an adverb derived from it, 
denotes also that the predicate is differently defined for the different 
persons spoken of: Discedebant alius in aliam partem (alius alio), 
they separated, one to one side, the other to another. Aliter cum aliis 
loqveris. Haec aliter ab aliis definiuntur. (In this sense it is also 
used of two, because alter does not express difference : Duo deinceps 
reges alius alia via civitatem auxerunt, Li v. I. 21.) 

Obs. 2. Ceteri, the others, the rest absolutely ; reliqvi, the rest, which 
remain after some have been deducted : hence we find ceteris antecel- 
lere, praestare, and praeter ceteros, but sex reliqvi ; in many other 
cases they are without a distinction. 



30 



PROSODY. 

THE MOST IMPORTANT RULES OF LATIN METRE (VERSIFICA- 
TION). 

§ 497. The structure of Verse is founded in Latin (and Greek) 
on the different quantity (the length and shortness) of the syllables. 
In English, on the contrary, and other modern languages, the struc- 
ture of verse is founded on the accentuation or non-accentuation of 
the syllable. A verse (versus, properly signifying only, a line) 
consists in Latin of a series of long and short syllables, which (in 
shorter divisions, feet) succeed each other according to a fixed rule, 
which is the measure of the verse (metrum). 

Obs. 1. The word metrum QiixQOv, measure) is also used of a defi- 
nite combination of several verses. See § 509. 

Obs. 2. A verse is in general a series of words, which are grouped 
together without any break while they are uttered, but are somewhat 
separated from what follows, that the order and alternation of syllables 
which appear in it may be compared with other series. With this view 
it is required that the verse should only have a certain length, and that 
the alternation of the syllables should be easily caught and retained by 
the ear. Either this alternation of syllables shows in the verse itself an 
agreement and repetition of the same form, or this agreement and repe- 
tition appear in the combination of several verses ; and herein consists 
the poetical rhythm, or the regular movement which is the object of verse, 
and of which verse is a part. 

§ 498. The feet of the verse (pedes), i.e. the separate combina- 
tions of syllables, of which a verse consists, are formed of long and 
short syllables brought into contrast with one another. The long 
syllable has twice the duration (mora) of the short. Combinations 

of syllables of the same kind (e.g. orv w \j) are not proper 

(metrical) feet, from which a kind of verse may be composed, but 
yet they may often stand in the place of feet of the same length, so 
that a long syllable is represented by two short ones, or two short 

ones by a long one (e.g. for — w w) ; and it may even be a 

characteristic of a peculiar metre, that such feet are used in certain 



§ 499 RULES OF LATIN METRE. 467 

places {Spurious Feet). The place which the long and consequently- 
more important syllable assumes in genuine feet is called arsis 
(raising) ; that occupied by the short one, thesis {sinking). (When 
therefore the spurious foot u v v is put instead of — w, the two 

first syllables make up the arsis ; when stands for — \j \j, the 

first syllable is in the arsis, but the last, if it stands for ^ w — .) 
The arsis may precede the thesis (so that the movement, as it were, 
goes downwards), or follow it (so that the movement goes up- 
wards). 1 

Obs. The measuring and recitation of a verse, according to its feet, is 
called scanning (scansio) . 

§ 499. The following are the different kinds of feet: — 

a. Those whose arsis and thesis are of equal duration (together four 
morae) are — 

— ^/\j, dactylus ; 
^/ v-/ — , anapaestus. 

6. Those whose arsis is twice as long as the thesis (together three 
morae) , — 

— \s, trochaeus or choreus ; 
^ — , iambus. 

c. Those in which one part of the foot is half as long again as the 
other (together five morae) , — 

— ^ — , creticus (with a double arsis) ; 

1 In speaking, however, of the Arsis and Thesis in Greek and Latin Verse, we must not 
think, as is usually done, of an elevation and depression of the voice, since the names are bor- 
rowed from Music, and taken from the movement of the stick used in heating time, on which 
account, too, they had with the ancients a signification opposite to that which, by a misunder- 
standing, they have since acquired : the ancients named the important part Thesis, the other 
Arsis. We should also guard against the opinion which is generally current; viz., that the 
ancients accentuated the long syllable (in the arsis) and distinguished in this way the move- 
ment of the verse (by a so-called verse-accent, ictus metricus), and consequently often 
accentuated the words in verse quite otherwise than in prose (e.g. Arma virumqye cano 
Trojae qvi primus ab oris Italiam fato profugus Lavinaqve venit Littora). 
which is impossible ; for the verse depends on a certain prescribed order and form of move- 
ment being distinguishable, when the words are correctly pronounced. In our own verses we 
do not accentuate the syllables for the sake of the verse, but the syllables which are perceptibly 
distinguished by the accentuation in prose form verse by being arranged to succeed each other 
in this way. In Latin and Greek (where even in prose pronunciation the accent was quite 
subordinate, and is never named in speaking of rhetorical euphony, while on the other hand 
the difference of quantity was distinctly and strongly marked) the verse was audibly distin- 
guished by this very alternation of the long and short syllables. But as it is not possible for us, 
either in prose or verse, to pronounce the words according to the quantity in such a way as 
the ancients did, we cannot recite their poetry correctly, but are forced in the delivery to give 
a certain stress of voice to the Arsis, and thus make their verses somewhat resemble ours. 
It should, however, be understood that it was different with the ancients themselves (until the 
latest centuries of their history, when the pronunciation itself underwent modifications). 



468 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 500 

— www, paeon primus ; 
www—, paeon qvartus. 
Obs. The paeons may be considered as resolutions of the creticus, 
which is also called amphimacer. 
d. Spurious feet, — 

, spondeus (instead of the dactyl or anapaest) ; 

www, tribrachys (instead of the trochee or iambus ; was often also 
called trochaeus) . 

To these we may add the compound foot choriambus (— ww— ), 
consisting of a trochee and an iambus. 

Obs. 1. In anapaestic, trochaic, and iambic verse, two feet are reck- 
oned together to a dipodia (double foot) .* 

Obs. 2. The spondee and the tribrach, as combinations of syllables 
of precisely equal prosodial value, are peculiar to Greek and Latin verse, 
and in English versification are of no significance, so far as the recogni- 
tion of them by the ear is concerned. What is called the spondee in our 
imitations of ancient verse (as, for instance, hexameter verse) is in fact 
a trochee, — an accented followed by a comparatively unaccented syl- 
lable. 



§ 500. A verse is formed either by repeating the same foot sev- 
eral times (simple verse) or by combining and mixing different feet 
(compound verse). A verse, even if the rule of its composition be 
departed from in some particulars, and in some of the places differ- 
ent feet substituted, will, in many cases, make on the whole the 
same impression on the ear, and be easy of recognition. This is the 
case especially in long and simple verses, which are repeated with- 
out the introduction of any different kind of verse. (See below on 
the different kinds of verse.) The last syllable of Latin verses may 
always be either long or short (anceps), since an accurate com- 
parison is here prevented by the pause (but for this reason, too, it 
can never be resolved, — intoww). Averse often concludes in 
such a way, that the last foot is incomplete, and is then called ver- 
sus catalecticus. 



1 The names of the feet are all borrowed from the Greek. Several other kinds are usually 

enumerated, the Pyrrhichius w w, Proceleusmaticus w w w w, Molossus , Bac- 

chius w , Antibacchius w, Amphibrachys w — ^/,the second and third Paeon 

v/ — w w,w w — w, four Epitrites w , &c, together with the Ionicus a majore 

w w, and a minore w \s . But these combinations of syllables are not elementary 

parts of verse, and are only looked upon as feet in consequence of an erroneous way of repre- 
senting and dividing the verse. 



§ 502 RULES OF LATIN METRE. 469 

Obs. A distinction is made between versus catalectici in syllabam, 

where a single syllable follows the last complete foot, and catalectici in 
dissyllabum, where two syllables follow a foot of three syllables ; but 
these two syllables may be considered as a distinct dissyllabic foot. 

§ 501. Caesura {cutting) is the name given to the division of 
certain longer verses into two parts, by causing a word in a certain 
given position to end in the middle of a foot. This gives rise to a 
pause, which, however, does not interfere with the continuity of the 
verse, since the incomplete foot draws the attention to the remainder. 
In some others of the longer verses such a break is found at the end 
of a foot, — that is, the foot and the word end with the same syllable 
(diaeresis) ; but then the close of the verse is apt to have a differ- 
ent (catalectic) form, so that the attention is thus directed to the 
end. 

Obs. 1. The term Caesura is sometimes applied to a division of the 
words at the termination of each foot (so that each of the two parts of 
the word belongs to a separate foot) . In simple verses of some length 
euphony is improved by this division and the seeming contest between 
the words and the verse, as in this hexameter : — 

ill II 

Una salus victis nullam sperare salutem ; 

whereas by a complete or too frequent coincidence of the words with the 
feet the verse is, as it were, broken up, as in the following hexameter : — 

Sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret, 
which is also in other respects not well constructed (see Obs. 2) . 

Obs. 2. The name of word-feet is given to whole words in a verse, when 
they are considered as prosodial combinations of syllables ; e.g. tem- 

pora as a dactyl, arma as a trochee, pelluntur as ^ (spondee and 

^, or — and trochee) . Simple verses of some length lose in variety and 
euphony, when the word-feet which follow in succession are too uniform ; 
as, e.g. in this hexameter : — 

Sole cadente juvencus aratra relinqvit in arvo, 
where four words in succession have the form v^ — w. 

§ 502. a. The correctness of the verse, so far as prosody is con- 
cerned, depends on all the syllables being used according to their 
proper pronunciation and quantity. But with respect to this it is 
to be noticed, that certain freedoms in the pronunciation of indi- 
vidual words and forms were looked upon as allowed in poetry (see 
on the alteration of i and u into j and V, diaeresis and synizesis, § 5, 
a, Obs. 4 ; § 6, Obs. 1 ; on illius, unius, § 37, Obs. 2 ; on steterunt, 



470 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 502 

§ 114, a; on religio, reliqviae, for religio, reliqviae, § 204, a, 
Obs, 1), especially in the case of words or proper names, which 
otherwise could not be used at all in a particular kind of verse 
(e.g. alterlus and Priamides in the hexameter, on which account 
they are pronounced alterius, Priamides; for piieritia Horace 
says puertia). In the arsis of dactylic verses (hexameters), the 
short final syllable of polysyllables, if ending in a consonant, is 
sometimes used as long; so also qve occasionally in the second 
arsis of the hexameter : — . 

Desine plura puer, et qvod nunc instat, agamus (Yirg. B. IX. 
66). 

Fectoribus inhians spirantia consulit exta (Id. 2En. IV. 64). 

Turn sic Mercurium alloquitur ac talia mandat (Id. JEn. IV. 
222). 

Sub Jove mundus erat, subiit argentea proles (Ov. Met. I. 
114) .* 

Turn Thetis humanos non despexit hymenaeos (Catull. 64, 20). 

Sideraqve ventiqve nocent avidaeqve volucres (Ov. Met. V. 
484). 

(Angulus ridet, ubi non Hymetto, Hor. Od. II. 6, 14, in a Sapphic 
verse.) 2 

Obs. 1. The shortening of a syllable that is usually long is called sys- 
tole (contraction) ; the lengthening of a short one, diastole (extension). 

Obs. 2. The old comic poets (Plautus and Terence) in many cases 
used syllables as short, which are long by position (§ 22, Obs. 5) . So 
likewise they deviated not unfrequently (Plautus especially) by contrac- 
tion and the rejection of syllables (syncope) from the usual pronuncia- 
tion of the words. Besides this, they treated the metres themselves 
(with reference to the feet which may be used, &c.) with great freedom, 
so that the metrical reading and explanation of their verses is often very 
difficult, the more so,' since in many passages, particularly in Plautus, 
they are incorrectly written. They must consequently be almost entirely 
passed over here. 



1 The last syllable of the perfect of compounds of eo is very often lengthened in this way. 

2 The lengthening in the arsis, not by the arsis, as it is commonly explained on the assumed 
theory of a verse-accent, rests, as a tolerated license, on the circumstance, that in definite places 
in certain verses the reader expects and requires a long syllable, and hence is not misled, if the 
poet, within certain limits, allows himself to use a short one, but varies the pronunciation of 
the syllable in respect of the quantity, in such a way that the requirements of the verse are 
in a manner satisfied. This license therefore corresponds to the occasional accentuation of 
unaccented syllables in modern verse. 



§ 503 RULES OF LATIN METRE. 471 

b. A hiatus should be avoided. This is produced when a final 
vowel (or m) meets an initial vowel (§ 6) in the same verse, it 
being at the same time requisite to pronounce the former (in order 
to make the verse complete), instead of dropping it by elision (ec- 
thlipsis). (The concurrence of vowels at the end of one verse and 
the beginning of another does not offend the ear, since a pause falls 
between them.) Yet the poets have sometimes allowed themselves 
a hiatus in longer dactylic verses, in cases where it was less objec- 
tionable ; namely : — 

a. With a long final vowel or diphthong (ae) in the arsis : Orchades 
et radii et amara pausia bacca (Virg. G. II. 86). Qvid struit? 
aut qva spe inimica in gente moratur ? (Id. iEn. IV. 235). Tune 
ille Aeneas, qvem Dardanio Anchisae (Id. 2En. I. 617), mostly at 
the caesura; 6. with a long final vowel (diphthong) in the thesis, so that 
the vowel becomes short in the pronunciation : Credimus ? an, qvi 
amant, ipsi sibi somnia fingunt? (Virg. B. VIII. 108). Insulae 
Ionio in magno (Id. iEn. III. 211). Torva leaena lupum seqvitur, 
lupus ipse capellam, te Corydon, 6 Alexi! (Id. B. II. 65) ; c. with a 
short final vowel (in the thesis) where there is at the same time a comple- 
tion of the sense, a caesura, or a repetition of the same word : Et vera 
incessu patuit dea. Ille ubi matrem (Virg. iEn. I. 405) . In a syl- 
lable ending in m (which is always short) the hiatus is extremely rare. 

Obs. Interjections, which consist only of a vowel, cannot be elided. 
Here therefore the hiatus must be avoided in another way, except so far 
as it may be tolerated (as in the following example, O ubi campi, Virg. 
Georg. II. 486, according to a, and Buc. II. 65 under b) ; ae at the end 
of a word is very seldom elided before a short vowel. 



§ 503. Of the simple dactylic verses the most important, and 
the only one which is used by itself, without combination with others, 
is the Hexameter, versus hexameter (metrum here signifying 
foot). It consists of five dactyls and a trochee (or of six dactyls, 
the last of which is catalectic in dissyllabum). Each of the four 
first dactyls may be exchanged with a spondee. A spondee is very 
rarely substituted for the fifth dactyl by such poets as are most 
careful in the structure of the verse, because in this way the dac- 
tylic form of the verse becomes less conspicuous. If a spondee 
stands as the fifth foot (a spondaic verse), the fourth foot is gen- 
erally a dactyl. 



472 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 504 

The hexameter has regularly a caesura in the third foot, either 
after the arsis (masculine caesura), 1 or after the first short syllable 
of the dactyl (feminine caesura) : 2 — 

Arma virumqve cano, | Trojae qvi primus ab oris. 
Vi superum, saevae | memorem Junonis ob iram. 
Id metuens veterisqve | memor Saturnia belli. 

Sometimes the caesura is not in the third foot, but after the arsis 
of the fourth : 3 — 

Illi se praedae accingunt | dapibusqve futuris (Virg. Mn. 1. 210). 

Even when a word ends in the third foot, the caesura in the fourth 
sometimes makes a more suitable division in the verse : — 

Jamqve faces et saxa volant, | furor arma ministrat (Virg. Mn. 1. 150). 
Posthabita coluisse Samo ; | hie illius arma (id. ib. 1. 16; hiatus). 

The hexameter is the verse best adapted to a uniformly progressive 
exhibition of events, and is therefore used in narrative (epic) poems 
(versus heroicus, verse of heroic poetry), and in didactic poems, 
satires, and poetical epistles. 

Obs. 1. Qve, at the end of a hexameter, is, in some few instances, 
elided before a vowel at the beginning of the following verse (versus 
hypermeter. The last syllable of Latinorum, at the end of the verse 
in iEn. VII. 160, is elided). 

Obs. 2. In carefully constructed hexameters, a proposition which is 
grammatically quite distinct from the foregoing does not begin with or 
in the last foot. 

§ 504. a. The following dactylic verses are used (by Horace) in 
combination with other verses : — 
_ w w _ ^ (versus Adonius) ; e.g. 

Fusee, pharetra. 
_ ^ ^ _ ^ v., ^ (versus Archilochius minor) ; 

Pulvis et umbra sumus. 
_v^^_v^v^ — w^— — ( v - dactylicus tetrameter catalecticus) : 

( — ) 

Carmine perpetuo celebrare. 
O fortes pejoraqve passi. 
Ossibus et capiti inhumato. 

i Caesura penthemimeres (7revd7}fitjj,ep7jc) y after the fifth half foot. 

2 Caesura Kara rpirov Tpoxalov, after the trochee of the third foot. 

3 Caesura hephthemimeres (^(fy^Fpfc ), after the seventh half-foot. 



§ 506 RULES OF LATIN METRE. 473 

b. A dactylic verse of a peculiar form is the so-called penta- 
meter, which consists of two parts, always separated by the diaere- 
sis (§ 501), each of which has two dactyls and a syllable of an in- 
complete foot (in the first division always a long syllable). Spon- 
dees may also be used instead of the two first dactyls. The 
pentameter is never used alone, but a hexameter and pentameter 
are combined to form a distich, and this combination is continually 
repeated : — 

Tempora cum causis Latium digesta per annum, 
Lapsaqve sub terras | ortaqve signa canam. 

Obs. This form is applied particularly to elegies (versus elegiacus) 
and epigrams (by Ovid it is employed also in didactic poetry). 

§ 505. The ordinary anapaestic verse is versus anapaestus di- 
meter (here the metrum is a dipocly, § 499, Obs. 1), which consists 
of four anapaests, with a diaeresis between the second and third. 
The anapsests may be changed for spondees, and these again for dac- 
tyls. (Seneca does not use the dactyl in the last foot.) Yet each 
line is not considered completely as a verse by itself, but a whole 
series of verses (a system) is so combined, that (in Greek without 
an exception) the hiatus is excluded, and the last syllable is not 
anceps, and the final and initial consonant make position, till the 
system ends by the sense being completed, sometimes with a ver- 
sus monometer of two anapaests (in Greek with a catalectic 
termination). These anapaests are used in the choral songs (in 
Latin only in tragedies, of which Seneca's alone are preserved) ; 
e.g.: — 



Qvanti casus humana rotant ' 

Minor in parvis Fortuna furit, 

Leviusqve ferit leviora deus ; w w 

Servat placidos obscura qvies, 

Praebetqve senes casa securos. 

(Sen. Hippol. 1124 seqq.) 

§ 506. Trochaic verses are divided into dipodies (§ 499,6/, Obs. 
1), and in longer verses the second foot of the dipody may be 
changed for a spondee without disturbing the trochaic movement. 



474 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 507 

The most usual trochaic verse (in lively scenes in tragedies and 
comedies) is the catalectic tetrameter (tetrameter trochaicus cata- 
lecticus, also trochaicus septenarius, from the number of the per- 
fect feet). It consists of seven trochees and a syllable, and has the 
diaeresis (§ 501) after the fourth foot. A tribrach may stand every- 
where instead of the trochee, and in the even places (2, 4, 6, the 
last in the dipodies) a spondee. 

Nulla vox humana constat | absqve septem litteris, 

Rite vocavit vocales, | qvas magistra Graecia (Terent. Maur.). 

In the comic poets the diaeresis is not always observed : they often 
use spondees in all places except in the seventh foot, and then also 
substitute a dactyl or anapaest for a spondee, so that the form of 
the verse is very variable. 

Of other trochaic verses the following is found in Horace — v-/ — ^ — 
^ y (trochaicus dimeter catalecticus) : — 

Truditur dies die. 

§ 507. a. Iambic verses are measured by dipodies, and in longer 
verses the first foot of every dipody may be changed for a spondee, 
without disturbing the iambic movement. The most usual iambic 
verse is that with six feet, called iambicus trimeter (from the three 
dipodies) or senarius (from the feet), which is used in some special 
smaller compositions alone, or with other iambic verses, and is also 
the usual verse in dramatic dialogue. In the most careful writers 
(as Horace) a spondee may stand in the uneven places (1, 3, 5) 
instead of the iambus, and (but more rarely) a tribrach instead of 
every iambus, except the last. (The spondee in the first and third 
foot is very rarely changed again for a dactyl, or in the first for an 
anapaest.) This verse has usually a caesura after the thesis of the 
third foot, or if not there, after the thesis of the fourth. The form 
is therefore as follows (Hor. Ep. 17) : — 

w 



W V-/ V^ V»/ \J \J \J \J\J\J 



\J\J\J\J\J 



The comic poets allow themselves greater irregularities, since they also 
put a spondee in the even places (2, 4), only not in the sixth foot, and 
use a dactyl and an anapaest here and there in each of the first five feet. 



§ 508 RULES OF LATIN METRE. 475 

Fo'eta cum primum animum ad scribendum adpulit, 
Id sibi negoti credidit solum dari, 

\s <»/ — — — 

Populo ut placerent, qvas fecisset fabulas. 
Verum aliter evenire multo intelligit. 

— s^ ^ 

Nam in prologis scribundis operam abutitur. 

(Ter. Andr. prol. init.) 

Obs. The comic poets also use iambic tetrameters, sometimes complete 
ones of eight feet (octonarii), sometimes catalectics (septenarii) of 
seven feet and a syllable, usually with a diaeresis after the fourth foot, 
and with great freedom in the change of the feet. 

b. Of other iambic verses the following are found in Horace : — 

— — w — — — w ^ (iamb. dimeter)>- 
(— ^ w) (y/ \j v^) 

Imbres nivesqve comparat. 
— — ^ — — — ^ — ^ — — (iamb, trimeter catalecticus) ; 
(y\j \j) 
Trahuntqve siccas machinae carinas. 

^_jv^_-| \ \y — | — (Alcaicus enneasyllabus) ; 

Et scindat haerentem coronam. 

Obs. 1. Choliambus (scazon, limping iambus) is the name given to a 
verse which is produced by changing the last iambus of an iambic trime- 
ter for a trochee or spondee. The fifth foot is then always a regular 
iambus : — 

O qvid solutis est beatius curis (Catuii ). 

Obs. 2. Cretic and pgeonic verses occur only in the comic poets, and 
are here passed over. The choriambus is produced when a dactylic move- 
ment in the arsis is interrupted by a new arsis. In the verses which are 
called choriambic, the choriambus occurs once or oftener in the middle of 
a compound verse. See the next paragraph. In one ode only (III. 12) 
Horace has imitated a Greek form, which consists of choriambic movement, 
introduced by an anapaest (y^ ^ ^ w ^ — ) , continued un- 
broken to the conclusion (or properly in divisions, each of which contains 

the combination of syllables ^ w , called Ionicus a minore, repeated 

ten times). 

§ 508. Compound verses contain a more artificial movement, but 
even this exhibits a certain rhythmical proportion which may be 



476 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 508 

distinguished as exercising a controlling influence, either in the 
verse itself, or, if this be short, in the verses with which it is com- 
bined. If a dactylic movement passes into trochees, the form of 
verse is called logaoedic. 1 Sometimes an introductory foot of two 
syllables (the Basis) is put before a dactylic or logaoedic series. In 
other verses the choriambic form is seen in the middle, and the con- 
clusion is logaoedic. The compound verses make a more lively 
impression, and belong to the character of lyric poetry. The most 
important forms (especially those used by Horace) are the follow- 
ing:— 

— v v-> — \y — — ( Aristophanicus) ; 
Lydia die, per omnes. 

_ w w — w w — v-/ — — (Alcaicus decasyllabus) ; 
Nee virides metuunt colubras. 

__ww — ww — ww — ww — w — w — — (Archilochius major) ; 

Solvitur acris hyems grata vice veris et Favoni. 
ww — — (Pherecrateus) ; 

Vis formosa videri. 
ww — w ^ (Glyconicus) ; 

Nil mortalibus arduum est. 
(— — — ww — w — w — — (Phalaecius, not in Horace) ; 
w^ 

Vivamus, mea Lesbia, atqve amemus. Catull.) . 
^_|v^_l_ I _ | ww— | >^— (Alcaicus hendecasyllabus) 
Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori. 

_ w I i _ I w.w I — w I - ^ (Sapphicus) ; 

Integer vitae scelerisqve purus. 

Obs. The caesura may also sometimes stand after the first short syllable 
of the dactyl. 2 

(_w | | -wv^- | -ww | -w | -^ (Sapphicus major) ; 

Cur timet flavum Tiberim tangere ? cur olivum ?) 

I _ww- | -ww | -w | ^ (Asclepiadeus minor); 

Crescentem seqvitur cura pecuniam. 

I -ww- | -ww- | _wv^|-^ |^ (Asclepiadeus major) ; 

Qvis post vina gravem militiam aut pauperiem crepat ? 

i From loyog, speech, and uotdrj, song. 

2 The Alcaic hendecasyllabic verse consists of iambi with an anapaest in the fourth foot, 
the Sapphic of trochees with a dactyl in the third foot ; but, as a rule (in Horace), a spondee is 
always substituted for the iambi or trochees in the third place of the Alcaic, and in the second 
place of the Sapphic verse. 



§ 509 RULES OF LATIN METRE. 477 

Obs. The so-called versus asynarteti, which consist of two divis- 
ions, so loosely connected that a hiatus may be allowed between them, 
and the final syllable of the first part is anceps, are (at least in Horace) 
best considered as two verses. As such may be mentioned : — 

— ^/v-/ — ^w~ j — — ^/ — — — \j— (elegiambus) and 

— — ^ — — — ^^ | — v^v-/ — ^v^— (iambelegus). 

§ 509. In lyrical poems it is most customary to employ not a 
succession of the same verses, but either a combination of two of 
different kinds (simple or compound), which is repeated (distichs), 
or a combination of several lines, which is called a strophe. 1 Every 
such combination is often called a metre. The strophes used by 
Horace (besides distichs) are the following : — 

I. The Sapphic strophe ; three Sapphic verses (§ 508) and a versus 
Adonius (§ 504). See, for an example, the second ode of the first 
book. • 

Obs. In this strophe, we find a few instances of a syllable elided at 
the end of a line before a vowel in the next line (Od. II. 2, 18), and of 
a word divided between the third Sapphic verse and the v. Adonius 
(Od. 1.2, 19). 

H. The first Asclepiadean strophe ; three smaller Asclepiadean 
verses and a Glyconic (§ 508). For an example, see the sixth ode of 
the first book. 

IH. The second Asclepiadean strophe ; two smaller Asclepiadean 
verses, a Pherecratian (§ 508), and a Glyconic. See the fourteenth ode 
of the first book. 

IV. The Alcaic strophe ; two Alcaic hendecasyllabic verses (Al- 
caici hendecasyllabi, § 508), an Alcaic enneasyllabic verse (Ale. 
enneasyllabus, § 507, b), and an Alcaic decasyllabic verse (Ale. de- 
casyllabus, § 508). See, for example, the ninth ode of the first 
book. (An elision occurs at the end of the third line of Od. II. 3, 27.) 

Obs. 1. These strophes are named after the Greek poetess Sappho, 
and the poets Asclepiades and Alcaeus. 

Obs. 2. Distichs which occur in Horace may here be mentioned, with 
the names usually assigned to them : — 

1. The second Asclepiadean metre ; a Glyconic verse, and the smaller 
Asclepiadean (§ 508). (Book I. Ode 3.) (An elision occurs at the end 
of the Glyconic verse, Book IV. 1, 35.) 

i 2,TpO(p7j, a turn. 



478 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 509 

2. The greater Sapphic metre ; an Aristophanic and a greater Sap- 
phic verse (§ 508). (Book I. Ode 8.) 

3. The first Archilochian metre ; a dactylic hexameter, and a smaller 
Archilochian verse (§ 504, a). (Book IV. Ode 7.) 

4. The second Archilochian metre ; a hexameter and a versus iam- 
belegus (§ 508, Obs.) . If the iambelegus is considered as two verses, 
this metre becomes a strophe of three lines. (Epod. 13.) 

5. The third Archilochian metre ; an iambic trimeter (§ 507) and a 
versus elegiambus (§ 508, Obs.) ; it may also be considered as a 
strophe of three lines. (Epod. 11.) 

6. The fourth Archilochian metre; a greater Archilochian verse 
(§ 508) and a catalectic iambic trimeter (§ 507, b). (Book I. 
Ode 4.) 

7. The Alcmanic metre ; a hexameter, and a dactylic catalectic tetra- 
meter (§ 504, a). (Book I. Ode 7.) 

8. The second Iambic metre ; an iambic trimeter and an iambic di- 
meter. (Epod. 1.) 

9. The first Pythiambic metre ; a hexameter and an iambic dimeter. 
(Epod. 14.) 

10. The second Pythiambic metre ; a hexameter and an iambic tri- 
meter). (Epod. 16.) 

11. The Trochaic metre ; a catalectic trochaic dimeter (§ 506) and a 
catalectic iambic trimeter. (Book II. Ode 18.) 

The smaller Asclepiadean verse (§ 508), repeated line after line, is 
called the first Asclepiadean metre (Book I. Ode 1) ; and the iambic tri- 
meter, used in the same way, the first iambic. (Epod. 17.) 



SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GEAMMAE. 



I. Of the Roman Wat of expressing the Date. 

The division of time into weeks of seven days with distinct 
names was not used by the ancient Romans (before the introduction 
of Christianity). The months were distinguished by the names 
adopted by us from the Romans. These were adjectives, with 
which mensis was understood and might be also expressed (mense 
Aprili). July and August had the names of Qvinctilis and Sex- 
tllis down to the time of the emperor Augustus. The days of the 
month were computed from three leading days in each, which were 
called Calendae (Kal.), Nonae, and Idus (Iduum), and to which 
the name of the month was appended as an adjective : Calendae 
Januariae, Nonis Decembribus, &c. (Less correctly, Calendae 
Januarii.) The Calends (Calendae) were the first day of the 
month, the Nones (Nonae) were the fifth, and the Ides (Idus) the 
thirteenth, but in the months of March, May, July, and October the 
Nones were the seventh, and the Ides the fifteenth. From these days 
they counted backwards, so that in the earliest part of the month 
they stated how many days there were before the Nones, and after 
that how many before the Ides, and after the Ides how many before 
the Calends of the month following. The day before the Nones 
(Ides, Calends) was expressed by the adverb pridie with the accu- 
sative : pridie Nonas Januarias, pridie Calendas Februarias {the 
31^ of January). The day before that was called the third day 
before the Nones (Ides, Calends), since the Nones (Ides, Calends) 
were themselves included in the computation, and so on with the 
preceding days, the fourth, &c. But this is expressed in a peculiar, 
and, in a grammatical point of view, striking way, — diem tertium, 
diem qvartum, &c, being inserted in the accusative between the 
preposition ante and Nonas (Idus, Calendas) : — 



480 LATIN GRAMMAR. 

Ante diem tertium Nonas Januarias, 1 ante diem qvartum Calen- 
das Februarias (written a. d. Ill Non. Jan., a. d. IV. Kal. Febr., &c). 
This expression is considered as one word, before which in and ex may 
stand ; e.g. ex ante diem III Nonas Junias usqve ad pridie Calen- 
das Septembres ; differre aliqvid in ante diem XV Calendas No- 
vembres. 

(It often happens that nothing more is written than III Non. which is 
usually read tertio (die) Nonas, but which ought, perhaps, to be read 
as a. d. Ill Non.) 

We may therefore ascertain the days of the month, when stated 
in the Roman manner, by subtracting the number given in the case 
of the Nones from 6 (or 8 for the Nones of March, May, July, or 
October), and in the case of the Ides from 14 (or from 16), because 
the Nones and the Ides themselves are included in the reckoning, 
and in the case of the Calends, by adding 2 to the number of days in 
the preceding month and subtracting from the amount the number 
specified (because the computation is made not from the last day of 
the month itself, but from the first of the following, and this is 
included) : — 

A. d. Ill Non. Jan. = 3d January ; a. d. VIII Id. Jan. = 6th Janu- 
ary ; a. d. XVII Kal. Febr. = 16^ January ; a. d. XIV Kal. Mart. = 
16th February ; a. d. V Id. Mart. = lli7i March. (In leap-year, the 
intercalated day was counted between a. d. VI Kal. Mart, and a. d. VII 
Kal. Mart., and denominated a. d. bissextum Kal. Mart., so that a. d. 
VII K, a. d. VIII, &c. (computing backwards), answers, as in the 
ordinary February, to the 23d, the 22d, &c). 



II. Computation of Money, and Mode of expressing 

Fractions. 

A. Sums of money were generally computed amongst the Komans 
(except in the earliest period and under the later emperors) by the 
sestertius (nummus sestertius, sometimes only nummus), a silver 
coin, which at first was equal to 2^, subsequently to 4 asses, about 
4 cents. These are counted regularly ; e.g. trecenti sestertii, duo 



1 The expression appears properly to signify before {on the third day) the Nones , &c. We 
find also the same construction with the names of festivals, a. d. V. Terminalia. 



COMPUTATION OF MONEY. 481 

millia sestertiorum (or sestertium, § 37, Ohs. 4). But to express 
several thousand sestertii the substantive sestertia, sestertiorum 
(not used in the sing.), is also made use of: hence duo, septem ses- 
tertia, = duo, septem millia sestertiorum ; and in the older writers 
this is the usual way of expressing a round number of thousands 
under a million. 

A million of sesterces (sestertii) is regularly expressed by decies 
centena (centum) millia sestertiorum (sestertium), sometimes 
only decies centena, millia sestertium being understood (Hor.). 
But instead of this we commonly find the abbreviated expression 
decies sestertium (generally reversed sestertium decies), and so 
on for larger numbers : undecies sestertium, 1,100,000 sesterces, 
duodecies, vicies, ter et vicies (2,300,000). In such expressions 
sestertium is treated and declined as a neuter substantive in the 
singular; e.g. (nom.) sestertium qvadragies relinqvitur; (ace.) 
sestertium qvadragies accepi ; (abl.) sestertio decies fundum emi, 
in sestertio vicies egere (to be poor in possession of 2,000,000 ses- 
terces). Sometimes, when the connection is obvious, the adverb 
alone is put without sestertium. Greater and smaller numbers are 
combined in this way : — 

Accepi vicies ducenta triginta qvinqve millia qvadringentos 
decern et septem nummos (Cic. Yerr. Lib. I. 14), 2,235,417 ses- 
terces. 

Sestertius is often denoted by the sign HS (properly USemis, 
2^, sc. as), which sign is also used for sestertia and sestertium. 
Hence arises some ambiguity, when the numbers (by which HS 
tres and HS tria may be distinguished) are not declined, and when 
both the numeral adjective and the numeral adverb are expressed 
by signs (e.g. decern and decies both of them by X). This am- 
biguity can only be removed by considering what sum will be most 
agreeable to the context. 1 

B. 1. A fraction is expressed in Latin, as in English, by the 
ordinal number with pars, e.g. pars tertia (the third pa?% a third), 
qvarta, qvinta, vicesima, &c. £ is expressed by pars dimidia. 
Pars is often omitted, only tertia, qvarta, &c, being used. (Di- 
midia, however, is not used without pars, but dimidium, half, and 

1 In printed books we sometimes find a thousand expressed by a stroke over the number, 
so that HSX stands for decern millia sestertium or decern sestertia. 

31 



482 LATIN GRAMMAR. 

dimidia hora, dimidius modius, &c.) For sexta we have also 
dimidia tertia; and for octava, dimidia qvarta. The numera- 
tors are stated as in English; e.g. duae tertiae, § ; tres septimae, 
f ; qvintae partes horae tres, § of an hour. But sometimes the 
fraction was divided into two smaller ones with the numerator 1 ; 
e.g. : — 

Heres ex parte dimidia et tertia est Capito (Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 
29), j-f-l = |-; horae qvattuordecim atqve dimidia cum tri- 
gesima parte unius horae (Plin. H. !N". VI. s. 39), 14| -[- -g 1 ^ = 14-Hp 
Europa totius terrae tertia est pars et octava paulo amplius (Plin. 
H. N. VI. s. 38), rather more than \ 4- \ = li. 

Obs. Duae partes agri, tres partes, &c, where the denominator is 
not given, signify f , f . 

2. The as (a Roman copper coin) and the pound (libra) were 
divided into twelve ounces, unciae, and for every number of ounces 
or twelfths under twelve there was a separate name. These names 
also served, especially in matters of inheritance, in land-measure, 
and measures of length, and in the calculation of interest, to denote 
the twelfths of a whole, twelfths of an inheritance (the whole inher- 
itance being called as) ; or of the unit of measure (jugerum or pes) ; 
and of the unit of interest (one per cent) ; and were sometimes also 
used of twelfths of other objects. The names (besides uncia) are 
sextans, £ ( T \) ; qvadrans, \ (£%) ; triens, -J {^) ; qvincunx, T \ ; 
semis (generally semissis), J (A); septunx, T \; bes, § ( T 8 2) ; 
dodrans, § ( T \) ; dextans, f (|§) ; deunx, \%. 

Librae tres cum semisse (3^ pounds). Heres ex asse, heir of the 
whole estate ; ex dodrante, of three fourths ; ex triente, ex parte di- 
midia et sextante. Triumviri viritim diviserunt tenia jugera et 
septunces (Liv. V. 24) , 3^ acres to each. Fenus ex triente factum 
erat bessibus (Cic. ad Att. IV. 15), had risen from \ p. c. per month 
to f . Obeliscus centum viginti qvinqve pedum et dodrantis 
(Plin. H. K XXX. s. 14, 5), 125| ft. Frater aedificii reliqvum 
dodrantem emit (Cic. ad Att. I. 14). 

Obs. Semis is also sometimes subjoined (in second-rate authors) as 
an indeclinable word ; as, foramina longa pedes tres semis (et semis), 
3^ feet long. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



483 



III. Abbreviations which frequently occur in the Edi- 
tions of the Latin Classics. 





a. First Names. 




A. . . . 


Aulus. 


M.' . . . 


Manius. 


App. . . 


Appius. 


Mam. . . 


Mamercus. 


D. . . . 


Decimus. 


N. or Num. 


Numerius. 


G. or C. . 


Gajus (the more cor- 


P. . . . 


Publius. 




rect) or Cajus. 


Q. . . . 


Qvintus. 


Gn. or Cn. 


Gngeus or (less cor- 


S. or Sex. 


Sextus. 




rectly) Cnejus. 


Ser. . . . 


Servius. 


K. . . . 


Kasso. 


Sp. . . . 


Spurius. 


L. . . . 


Lucius. 


T. . . . 


Titus. 


M. . . . 


Marcus. 


Ti. . . . 


Tiberius. 




b. Othee 


Words. 




Cal. Kal. . 


Calendae. 


Pont. Max. 


Pontifex Maximus. 


Cos. . . . 


Consul. 


Q.F.F.Q.S. 


Qvod felix faustum- 


Coss. . . 


Consules. 




qve sit. 


D. . . . 


D. Divus (D. Cae- 


Q.B.F.F.Q.S. 


Qvod bonum felix 




sar). 




faustumqve sit. 


Des. . . . 


Designatus. 


Qvir. . . 


Qvirites. 


F. . . . 


Filius. 


Resp. . . 


Respublica. 


Id. . . . 


Idus. 


S. P. Q. R. . 


Senatus populusqve 


Imp. . . 


Imperator. 




Romanus. 


N. . . . 


Xepos (P. Mucius P. 


S. C. 


Senatus consul turn.. 




F. Q. 1ST. = Publii 


S. . . . 


Salutem (in letters). 




filius, Qvinti ne- 


S. D. P. . 


Salutem dicit pluri- 




pos). 




mam. 


O. M. . . 


Optimus Maximus 


S.V.B.E.E.V 


Si vales bene est ; ego 




(surname of Jupi- 




valeo (introducto- 




ter). 




ry formula in let- 


P. C. . . 


Patres Conscripti. 




ters) . 


P. R. . . 


Populus Romanus. 


Tr. PL . . 


Tribunus plebis. 



INDEX. 



A is changed into e, t, or e, 5 c. 

a for as in Greek Proper Names, 35, Obs. 2. 

a for e in Greek words of the First Declension, 
35, Obs. 1. 

a and es (ia and ies.) used indiscriminately in 
the Nominative, 56. 3. 

a rarely used instead of the Greek Nominative 
es, 35, Obs. 3. 

a as a substantive termination, 177 a. 

ab (a) millibus passuum duobus, 234 b, Obs. 
Ab or the abl. alone with Passive Yerbs, 254, 
Obs. 1. Instead of the Abl. Instrum., 254, 
Obs. 2. Ab, on the side of, with respect to, 
253, Obs. Has an ambiguous signification 
with certain Verbs, 222, Obs. 2. With the 
names of Towns, 275. Obs. 1. 

abdere in aliqyem locum and in aliqvo 
loco, 230 (in) Obs. 4. 

abesse Roma, 275, Obs. 2. 

abest (tantum), 440 a, Obs. 1. 

abhine, 235, Obs. 2. 

Ablative in abus, 34, Obs. 4 ; in is fortius, 44, 
3 ; in nbus for ibus, 46, Obs. 4. Signification, 
252 (240, Obs.). Signifying, with regard to, 

253, Instrument, 254 (of Personal Names, 

254, Obs. 3 ; where other constructions are 
made use of in English, 255). Of Measure, 

255, Obs. 1. Of Eflicient Cause, 256, and 
Obs. 1. (Does not otherwise signify Cause, 

257, Obs. 2 ; signifying according to ; mea 
sententia, 256, Obs. 3.) Abl. modi, 258. The 
ablative of certain words used Adverbially, 

258, Obs. 2. Of Military Forces, 258, Obs. 
4. Of Price, 259 (294). As a Definition 
with Verbs, 260, seq. (With verbs of 
Abundance, 260 ; of Deficiency, 260 ; varied 
by another construction [dat. and accus.], 
260, b, and Obs. ; with verbs which have the 
signification of Releasing, 262 ; of Removing, 
263; of Shutting up and Comprising, 255, 
Obs. 2; with gaudeo, doleo, &c , 264; with 
utor, &c, 265); with other Phrases, 266 



267. With Adjectives and Participles, 268, 
269. Of Distance, 270. Of Difference, with 
Comparatives, 270. Ablative of the Second 
Member of the Comparison, 271, 304 (the 
ablatives spe, opinione, &c, 304, Obs. 4). 
Ablative of Quality, 272, 287, Obs. 2 (esse 
with the ablative instead of in, 272, Obs. 2). 
Ablative of the names of Towns answering to 
the question where, 273 a ; to the question 
whence, 275 (of a person's Home, 275, Obs. 3) ; 
of other words answering to the question 
where, 273 b, c (in the poets, Obs. 2) ; to the 
question whence , 275 (in the poets, Obs. 4) ; to 
denote the Direction of a Motion, 274. Ablative 
of Time answering to the questions when, and 
in how long a time, 276 (rarely answering to 
the question how long, 235, Obs. 3); to the 
question how long ago (his centum annis), 276, 
Obs. 5. Ablative of Punishment with damno, 
293, Obs. 3. Ablative Absolute, 277; 
of Participles, 428 (where not to be employed, 
Obs. 1 ; with qvanqvam and nisi, Obs. 2 ; 
their relation to the Subject of the leading 
Proposition, Obs. 4). Abl. Abs. of a Parti- 
ciple without a Substantive, 429, with Obs. 1 ; 
with the omission of the Pronominal Subject, 
429, Obs. 2 ; abl. of the Gerund, 416. Several 
ablatives in a different signification with the 
same Predicate, 278 ; the ablative joined im- 
mediately to a Substantive, 278 b. 

abundantia, 56. 

abus (termination) for is, 34, Obs. 4. 

ac, atqve, 433; ac non, 458, Obs. 1. Asa 
particle of Comparison, 303 a, 444 b ; ac si, 
ib. 

accedit qvod and ut, 373, Obs. 3 ; accedo 
with ad and with the Dative, 245 b, Obs. 2. 

Accent, 14, 23 ; 498, note. 

accusare inertiam adolescentium, 293, 
Obs. 2. 

Accusative in im, 42, 1 ; Greek ace. in a, 
45, 2 ; in im and in, 45, 2b; ym or yn, 45, 2 c / 



486 



INDEX. 



as, 45, 6; in en and em in Greek Proper 
Names, 45, 2 d. Signification, 222. With 
oleo, sapio, sono, 223, Obs. 2. Of a Subst. 
of the same stem, with intrans. verbs, 223 c, 
Obs. 4. With verbs which acquire a Transi- 
tive signification by being compounded with 
a Preposition, 224, 225. Two Accusatives 
with verbs signifying to make into any thing, 
to name, Sec, 227, a, b, c, with doceo and 
other verbs, 228. Accus. of a Pronoun with 
Verbs which do not govern a Substantive in 
the Accus., 229, 2. Accus. of the names of 
Towns answering to the question whither, 
232 (in the poets, of names of Countries and 
Common Nouns, Obs. 4). Accus. of Exten- 
sion and of Distance, 234 a, b. Of Time, 
235. In Exclamations, 236. Poetical usage 
of the accus. with Passive Verbs, which as- 
sume a new Active Signification, 237 a; with 
a Part. Perf., 237 b; of the Part affected, 
237, c (with ictus, saucius, Obs. 1). Adverbial 
Accus., 237 c, Obs. 3. Accusative of the 
Second Member of a Comparison instead of 
a Distinct Proposition, 303 b. Accus. of the 
Gerund, 414. Accus. with an Infinitive (as a 
Predicate and in Apposition), 388 b. Accus. 
with the Inf., 222, Obs. 1 ; see Infinitive. 

Acllillei, genitive, 38, 3. 

acqviesco in, 245, Obs. 1. 

ad with numerals, 'about,' 172, II., Obs. 2. 
With names of Towns, 232, and Obs. 1. * With 
regard to,' 253, Obs. (refert ad, 295, Obs. 1). 
Distinguished from the Dative {litter as dare 
alicui and ad aliqvem), 242, Obs. S. With 
the Gerund instead of the Second Supine, 
412, Obs. 3. Instead of the Genitive of the 
Gerund, 417, Obs. 3. Verbs compounded 
with it which take the Accusative, 224 b, 
245, Obs. 2 ; with the repetition of ad, 243, 
Obs. 1, 245 b, with Obs. 2. Aptus ad rem and 
aptus rei, 247 6, Obs. 6. Ad Vestae, 280, 
Obs. 3. Ad multum diet, ad id locorum, 285 b, 
Obs. 1. 

adde, qvod, 373, Obs. 3 

adhibeo ad, 243, Obs. 1. 

adigo aliqvem jusjurandum, 231, Obs. 

Adjective, its signification, 24, 2. Inflec- 
tion, 58 seq. Adjectives of One Termination, 
60 b. Neuter Plural of these adjectives, 60 c. 
Defective Adjectives, 61(58, Obs. 3). Varying 
between different Terminations, 59, Obs. 3, 
60, Obs. 1. Derivation, 185 seq. (from Proper 
Names of Persons, 189; of Towns, 190). In 
the Neuter as an Adverb, 198 c ,• in the Poets, 
302. Adjectives in the Neuter with a Parti- 
tive Genitive, 284, Obs. 5. Adjectives in 
Apposition, particularly those denoting Order 



and Succession, 300, a, b; solus, totus, &c, 
ib. c (adversus, secundus, Obs. 1). Adjectives 
of Time and Place instead of Adverbs in the 
Poets, 300, Obs. 2. Adjectives in Latin, where 
Substantives with Prepositions are made use 
of in English, 300, Obs. 3. Adjectives with 
Proper Names, 300, Obs. 4. Employed as 
Substantives in the Masculine and Neuter 
sing, and plur., 301, 247 b, Obs. 1 (amicus, 
&c). Adjectives in the Neuter with Preposi- 
tions (de integro), 301 b, Obs. 3. Position of 
Adjectives, 466 a, b, 467 a (in the Poets, 
474 b). The poets use greater freedom 
in combining them with Substantives, 481, 
Obs. 2. Prolepsis Adjectivi, ib. Two Adjec- 
tives referred to one Substantive, to denote 
different Persons or Things, 214 d, Obs. 2. 

admoneo with a Genitive or the Preposition 
de, 291, Obs. 2. 

adolescens, adolescentior, 68 6. 

adventu ( Caesaris) on (Ceesar's) arrival, 276, 
Obs. 2. 

Adverb, 24, 4. Pronominal Correlative Ad- 
verbs, 201. Comparison of Adverbs, 169 seq. 
Adverbs used as Prepositions, 172, Obs. 3. 
Derivation, 198 seq. ; forms in e, ter, o, 198. 
Numeral Adverbs, 199. Adverbs in o and 
um with Comparatives, 270, Obs. 1, 2. Ad- 
verbs apparently combined with a Substan- 
tive, 301 c, -Obs. 2. Position, 468. Some 
which are always put after other words, 471. 
An adverb instead of a judgment expressed in 
a distinct Proposition, 398 b, Obs. 4. 

Adversative Conjunctions, 437. Omitted, 437 d, 
Obs. Not attached to the Relative Pronoun, 
448, Obs. 2. 

adversus, in adversum collem, 300 c, Obs. 1. 

ae diphthong, 5 b, Obs. 1. ae, oe, e, 5 b, Obs. 3. 

aedes (aedem), omitted, 280, Obs. 3. 

aeqvare aliqvem alicui, 243, Obs. 4. 

aeqve ac, 444 b, and Obs. 1 ; aeqve — aeqve, 
ib. Obs. 4- 

aeqvi bonique facio, 294, Obs. 2. 

afnnis with a Genitive and Dative, 247 b, 
Obs. 4. 

Affirmative idea (omnes, ut dico), understood 
from one that is negative, 462 b. 

age, agite, 132 b {ago), and Obs. 

ai, an old termination of the Genitive, 34, 
Obs. 1. 

alienus, its construction, 268 b, Obs. 1, 2; 
247 b, Obs. 6. 

aliqvis and qvis, 493 a; and qvisqvam, 
494 a, Obs. 1; aliqvi and alic/vot, 493 a, 
Obs. 2. Adverbs from aliqvis and qvis, 201, 
2, Obs. 1. Aliqvid pulchri and pulchrum 
memorabile, 285 b. 



INDEX. 



487 



alius, a Pronoun, its Declension, 37, Obs. 2, 
84. Alius sapiente, 304, Obs. 3. Alius ac, 
nihil aliud qvam, nihil aliud nisi, 444 6, Obs. 
1. Alius — alius, alius aliter, alia via, 498, 
Obs. 1. 

alter, 84, and Obs. ; where the idea of Two is 
not immediately brought forward, 496. Alteri, 
84, Obs. Alterius, 37, Obs. 2. Alter — alter 
in Apposition, 217, Obs. 1. 

alterni, every other, 74, Obs. 2. 

amb, 204. 

ambo, 71. 

amicus alicui and alicujus, 247 b, and Obs. 1. 
Amicissimus, inimicissimus alicujus, ib. 

amplius with and without qvam, 305. 

an in Disjunctive Interrogations, 452 ; in those 
of a Supplementary kind, 453 ; in the poets 
and later writers in simple Dependent Inter- 
rogations, ib. After nescio, dubito, ib. De- 
noting Uncertainty, ib. Obs. 1. An vero, 
453. 

Anacoluthia, 480. 

Anapaest, 499. Anapaestic Verses, 505. 

Anaphora instead of the Copulative Conjunc- 
tion, 434, Obs. 2. Number of the Predicate 
where there is Anaphora of the Subject, 2136, 
Obs. 2. 

Anastrophe of the Preposition, 469, Obs. 1. 

Ancipites vocales et syllabae, 15. 

Animals, names of, their Gender, 30. Twofold 
form according to the sex, 30 c, Obs. 

an i mans, its Gender, 41 (p. 42). 

fl.ni mi (= animo) with Adjectives, 290 g; with 
Verbs, 296 b, Obs. 3. 

animo without in, 273 6, Obs. 1. 

animum induco, induco in animum, 389. 

anne, 452. 

annon, 452. 

Answer, Affirmative and Negative, 454. 

ante paucos dies, pautis ante diebus, 270, 
Obs. 4; ante decern dies qvam, ib. ; ante 
diem decimum qvam, 276, Obs. 6. Ante diem 
in noticing the day of the month, p. 480. 
Verbs compounded with ante with the Accus- 
ative, 224 d. 

anteqvam (postqvam) with the Perfect, 338, 
Obs. 5 ; with the Present Indie, instead of 
the Future, 339, Obs. 2, c; 360, Obs. 3. 
With the Indie, or Subj. 360 (and Obs. 4). 

apage. 164. 

apodosis, 326, Obs. 2 

Aposiopesis, 479, Obs. 6. 

applicare se ad aliqvid, 243, Obs. 1. 

Apposition, 210 b. Its Use and Meaning, 220. 
Of alius, alter, qvisqve, without any influence 
on the Predicate, 217, Obs. 1. Apposition to 
the whole Proposition, 220, Obs. 3. Apposi- 



tion of the Adjective, 300. Apposition sepa- 
rated from the word to which it belongs, 467 6. 

aptus, with the Dative or ad, 247 b, Obs. 6. 
Aptus qui, 363 b. 

arbor fici, 286. 

ardeo in aliqvi, 230, Obs. 1. 

argos and argi, 56, 7, Obs. 

Arsis and Thesis, 498. Lengthening of a syl- 
lable by Arsis, 502 a, with the note. 

as, an old Termination of the Genitive, 34, 
Obs. 2. 

as and is, Greek words with these termina- 
tions employed as Adjectives, 60, Obs. 5. 

as, (the) and its parts, Supplement II. B. 2. 

Aspiration, 9. 

assvetus with the Ablative, 267. 

Asyndeton with two members, 434. 

at, 437 c (at qvi vir). 

atque, see ac. 

atqvi, 437 c, Obs. 

attendo aliqvid and ad aliqvid, 225, Obs. 

Attraction, 207, Obs. With the Second 
Member of a Comparison, 303 b. With the 
Demonstrative Pronoun, 313 ; with the Rela- 
tive, 315 c, 316 ; with the case of a Relative, 
323 b, Obs. 2; with a Relative Subordinate 
Proposition belonging to an Accus. with the 
Infinitive, 402 b. Attraction of the Subject 
of a Subordinate Proposition to the Leading 
Prop., 439, Obs. 1. 

Attribute, 210, Obs. 

auctor sum with a Pronominal Accusative, 
229 b, Obs. 2. 

audivi eum dicere, dicentem, ex eo, qvum 
diceret, 395, Obs. 5. 

ave, 164. 

ausim, 115/. 

auspicio alicujus rem gerere, 258, Obs. 5. 

aut, aut — aut, 436. Aut continuing a Ne- 
gation, 458 c, Obs. 2 ; aut — aut after a Ne- 
gation, ib. Number of the Predicate with 
Subjects which are connected by aut or aut 
— aut, 213 6, Obs. 1. 

autem, 437 b. 

Barbarous Names, how declined, 54, Ob8. 4. 

Basis in Verse, 508. 

belli, 296 6. 

bona venia alicujus, 258, Obs. 5. 

bundus, a Participle Termination, 115 g. 

C, its pronunciation, 8. Relation to qv, ib. 
Caesura, 501. Of the Hexameter, 503. 
Calendae, Suppl. I. 
Calendar (Roman), ib. 
canere receptui, 249. 
Cardinal Numbers, 70. 



488 



INDEX. 



Cases, recti and obliqui. 32, Obs. Their Ter- 
minations, 33. Defective Inflection of, 55. 
Different Cases with the same Governing 
Word, 219, Obs. 2. Signification of the casus 
obliqui in general, 240. 

Catalectic Verse, 500, and Obs. 

causa terroris, a cause consisting in terror, 
286, Obs. 2. Causa (ratio) cur (qvamobrem), 
372 b, Obs. 6 ; causa, qvominus, nulla causa 
qvin, 375 b and c. 

Causa, with the Genitive, 257. Omitted with 
the Genitive of the Gerund, 417, Obs. 5. 

cave facere and cave facias, 375 a, and 
Obs. 1. 

caveo, its construction, 244 b, Obs. 1. 

ee, a Demonstrative Termination, 81, Obs. 82, 
Obs. 2 (hicine, sicine). 

cedo, cette, 164. 

cedere, with the Abl., 263. 

celare, its construction, 228 a, and Obs. 

censere faciendum, aliquid fieri, facere (ut) 
facias, 393, Obs. 4. Censeri with an Ac- 
cus., 237 a, Obs. 

certiorem facere rei and de re, 289 b, 
Obs. 1. 

ceteri and reliqvi, 496, Obs. 2. Ceteri at 
the end of an enumeration, not et ceteri, 434, 
Obs. 1. Cetera employed Adverbially, 237 c, 
Obs. 3. 

Chiasmus, 473 b. 

Choliambus (scazon) 507 b, Obs. 1. 

Choreus, 499. 

Choriambus, 499. Choriambic Verses, 507 b, 
Obs. 2. 

cingor with an Accus., 237 a. 

circum. Verbs compounded with it take the 
Accus., 224 a, and Obs. 2, 225. 

clam, 172, Obs. 3. 

co, eon, see cum. 

coepi, and coeptus sum, 161. 

COgo, 'with two Accusatives, cogor aliqvid, 
229, 2. 

Collectives with the Predicate in the Plural, 
215 a. The Relative referred to them in the 
Plural, 317 c. 

Common Nouns, 29. Names of animals as 
Common Nouns, 30 b. 

communis, its construction, 290 /. 

compacto, ex, 150 (paciscor). 

Comparare (componere, conjungere) with cum 
and with the Dative, 243, Obs. 2. 

Comparative, its Formation, 63; formed 
from Prepositional Stems, 66. Diminutives 
of it, 63, Obs. With qvam (ac), 303 a ; with 
a whole Proposition, 303 b ; with the Abl., 
304, with Obs. 1 (spe, opinione, aeqvo, &e, 
Obs. 4). Compar. of Adjectives of Measure, 



how constructed, 306. Two Comparatives 
connected by qvam, 307. Compar. of a Con- 
siderable Degree, 308. Instead of the Super- 
lative when only two are mentioned, 309. 
Irregular Construction of the Compar., 308, 
Obs. 2. 

Comparative Particles, 444. 

Comparison, 62. Irregular, 65. Defective, 66 
and 67. 

Compertus probri, 293, Obs. 1. Com- 
pertusfecisse, 400 c, Obs. 

complures, 65, 2, Obs. 

Composita, 203 ; Determinativa, 206 a ; Con- 
structa, b ; Possessive, c. 

Composition, 203 seq. (spurious, 53). Form, 
203 seq. Signification of the Forms, 206. 

Compound Verbs with a Transitive signification, 
224 ; with a Dat. or the Prep, repeated, 243, 
245. 

Concessive Conjunctions, what Mood they take, 
361, with the Obss. ; annexing a Remark 
which limits the preceding statement in an 
independent form, 443 ; with Participles and 
Adjectives, ib. Obs. 

conciliare aliqucm alicui, 242, Obs. 1. 

Conclusive Particles not connected with the 
Relative Pronouns, 448, Obs. 2 ; nor with the 
Copulative Conjunction, 434, Obs. 3. 

Conditional Conjunctions, 442. 

Conditional Propositions in the Indie, 
332 ; in the Subjunctive, 347. The Condition 
not expressed in the form of a Proposition, 
347 c. The Prop, limited by a Condition in the 
Indie, though that which expresses the con- 
dition is in the Subjunctive, 348 (370, Obs. 1). 
Condit. Prop, in the Subjunctive as belonging 
to an Infinitive, 348 e, Obs. 3. The Condition 
expressed by an Independent Proposition, 
442 a, Obs. 2. Two Condit. Propositions an- 
nexed to a Leading Proposition, 442 a. 

confieri, 143 [facio). 

Conjugation (p. 92, n). How the Four Con- 
jugations are related to each other, 101. 

Conjunction, 24, 6 ; classes of, 432 ; see Adver- 
sative, Copulative, &c. Position of the Con- 
junctions, 465 b. Conjunctions transposed in 
the poets, 474 d; the Copulative and Dis- 
junctive sometimes separated from the second 
member, 474 e. 

conjunctus with the abl., dat., and cum, 
268 a, Obs. 2. 

Connecting vowel, 176 c, 205 a. 

conscius, 289 b, Obs. 2. 

Consecutio temporum, 3S2. 

consilium capio facere and faciendi, 417, 
Obs. 2. 

consolari dolorem alicujus, 223 b. 



INDEX. 



489 



Consonants Doubled, 10. Modification of the 
Consonants when they come together, ib. 
When dropped, ib. 11, Obs. Combinations 
of the Consonants at the beginning of words, 
13, Obs. 1. 

COnstare, ex, in, constare re, 255, Obs. 2. 

COntentus with the Infinitive, 389, Obs. 3. 

COntingit ut, and with the Infinitive, 373, 
Obs. 2. 

contineri aliqva re, 255, Obs. 2. 

eontinuare aliqvid alicui, 243, Obs. 4. 

Contraction, 6, Obs. 1. With the rejection of a:, 
182/, Obs. 3. 

contrarius ac, 444 b. 

eonventa pax, 110, Obs. 3. 

Coordinate Propositions in place of the com- 
bination of a Leading and Subordinate prop., 
438. 

Copula, 209 b, Obs. 1. 

Copulative Conjunctions, 433. Inserted or 
omitted where several words are connected, 
434, Obs. 1. Not added to Illative Particles, 
ib., Obs. 3. For Adversative, 433, Obs. 2. 

Correlative Pronouns, 93 ; Adverbs, 201. 

COtidie (orthography), 8. 

Countries, names of, 192 ; treated as the 
names of Towns, 232, Obs. 4 ; some ending 
in us, fern., 39 b. 

crassitudine (digiti) "of the thickness," 
272, Obs. 3. 

credor auctor, 227 c, Obs. 2 ; for creditur 
mihi, 244, Obs. 4. 

Creticus, 499. 

crimine, 293, Obs. 2. 

cujus, a, urn, and cujas, 92, Obs. 2. 

cum, conjunction, see qvum. 

cum, preposition, how modified in Composi- 
tion, 173. Put after its case (mecum), 172, 
Obs. Qvid mihl (tibi) cum aliqvo? 479 d, 
Obs. 1 ; cum magno studio, and simply 
magno studio, cum cura* 258, and Obs. 1, 2 ; 
cum omnibus copiis, and simply omnibus 
copiis, 258, Obs. 4; cum magna calamitate 
civitatis (to), 258, Obs. 5. Subjects con- 
nected by cum with the Predicate in the 
Plural, 215 c. Yerbs compounded with cum 
which take the Accus., 224 b ; with a repeti- 
tion of the Preposition, more rarely with the 
Dative, 243, Obs. 2. 

cupio esse, and me esse, 389, Obs. 4. 

cur: est, nihil est, cur, 372 6, Obs. G; 
cur, qvare, qvidni, 492 b, Obs. 2. 

euro faciendum often expressed bjfacio, 
481 a, Obs. 1. 

Dactyl, 499 ; Dactylic Verses, 503, 504. 

damnare, Construction, 293, Obs. 2, 3 

Dative, Irregular forms in the Plural, see 



Ablative ; Greek in si, 45, 8. Signification of 
the Dative, 241 (240 Obs. ). Dativus commodi 
et incommodi, 241, Obs. 1. Dative annexed 
to the Whole Phrase, instead of the Genitive 
with a Substantive, 241, Obs. 3 and 4 (lega- 
tum esse alicui), and 242, Obs. 2 (causa rebus 
novandis, 241, Obs. 3). Dative with facio, 
Jit, 241, Obs. 5 ; Dative of a Participle signi- 
fying "when one," ib., Obs. 6. Dative as 
object of Keference with Verbs, 242. Dative 
with Compound Transitive Verbs, or the 
Preposition repeated, 243 (and Obs. 3). With 
Intransitive Verbs, 244 ; with a Verbal Sub- 
stantive, 244, Obs. 5. With Compound In- 
transitive Verbs or the Preposition repeated, 
245 ; with sum, 246. Double Dative with 
nomen est (do), 246, Obs. 2. With Adjectives, 
247. With diversus, discrepo, disto, 247 6, 
Obs. 3. Dative or ad with aptus, &c, 247 6, 
Obs. 6. With some Adverbs (convenienter, 
&c), 247 b, Obs. 7. With idem, 247 b, Obs. 
8. Dativus ethicus, 248. Dative denoting 
the Design and Operation, 249, especially the 
Dative of the Gerundive, 249, Obs. 415. 
Dative of the Agent instead of ab with pas- 
sives, 250 a. Dative of the Direction towards, 
251. Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive, 
415. Dative with an Infinitive (licet mihi esse 
beato), 393 c. Dative of the Agent with the 
Gerundive, 420, 421 a, and Obs. 1. 

de Partitive, 284, Obs. 1. de improviso, 
301 b, Obs. 3. De with an Accus. with the 
Infin. following (de hoc dicitur Verri, eum — ), 
395, Obs. 7. Verbs compounded with de with 
a remote object, 243. 

debebam, debui, of a thing which would 
be Obligatory in an assumed case, 348 c ; of 
a thing which should have been done, 348 c, 
Obs. 

decet, decent, 166 6, Obs. 

Declinatio, p. 20, note. 

Declensions, their Number and mutual Rela- 
tion, 33, Obs. 1. 

Decomposita, 206 a, Obs. 1. 

deest, deeram, pronounced dest, deram, 
108, Obs. 2. 

Defectiva numero, 50 and 51- Casibus, 55. 

defendo = defendendi causa dico, 395, 
Obs. 2. 

deniqve, not ft deniqve, 434, Obs. 1. 

Deponents, 110 ; with irregular Supines, 146 
seq. ; varying between this and the Active 
form, 147 ; Passive of the last named used 
in a passive signification, 152 ; other Depo- 
nents in a Passive signification, especially the 
Part. Perf., 153. Deponents of the First Con- 
jug, derived from Substantives 193 b. 



490 



INDEX. 



Derivation, 174. Derivative Terminations how 
affixed to the Stem, 176. 

Derivatives, 175 a. 

Desideratives, without Perfect and Supine, 145. 
Their Formation, 197, 4. 

desitus sum, 136, 161 (coepi). 

dexterior, dextimus, 67 d, Obs. 2. 

Diaeresis, 5 a, Obs. 4 , in a metrical significa- 
tion, 501. 

Diastole, 502 a, Obs. 1. 

dico, " I mean," without influence on the 
Case, 219, Obs. 3. Dico to say to a person, 
that he is to — , 372. Dico, omitted, 479; 
dicere, 479 d, Obs. 4. 

differre alicui, 247 b, Obs. 3. 

dignus qvi, 333 ; dignus legi, 363, Obs. 1 ; 
dignum dictu, 412, Obs. 2. 

dimidius qvam, 444 b. 

Diminutives, their Formation, 182 ; of Adjec- 
tives, 188, 15. Obs. 2; from Comparatives, 
63, Obs. ; Diminutive Verbs, 197, 5. 

Dipodia, 499, Obs. 1. 

Diphthongs, 5 b. 

dis, 204 (Obs. 1). Adjectives and Verbs com- 
pounded with, which take a Dative (in the 
poets), 247 b, Obs. 3. 

discessu ( Caesar is), at (Caesar's) departure, 
276, Obs. 2. 

Disjunctive Conjunctions, 436. 

Distich, 504. Combinations in this form, 509, 
Obs. 2. 

distinctus, " studded," 260 a. 

Distributive Numbers, 69, 75 ; when employed, 
76. In the Sing, (in the poets), 76 d y Obs. 
Genitive Plural, 37, Obs. 4. Adjectives de- 
rived from them, 187, 10. 

diversus alicui (in the poets), 247 b, Obs. 3. 

dives, dis, 60 c, Obs. 1. 

do (ministro) bibere, 422, Obs. 1; do (reddo) 
loqvi, 390, Obs. 6 ; datur mihi cernere, ib. 

docere, doceri, its Construction, 228 a; 
docere aliqvem Graece (scire, oblivisci Graece), 
228 a, Obs. 

domus, declension, 46. Domi (domui), 296 b. 
Domum, 233. Domo, 275. (Domum suam, 
Pompeji, domum ad Pomp., 233.) 

donee, dum, with the Perf. Indie, 338 6, 
Obs. 5; with the Indie, and the Subj., 360, 
Obs. 2. 

dubito, non dubito, qvin; non dubito, with 
an Accus. with thelnfin. ; non dubito facere, 
375 c (Obs. 1 and 2). Dubito an, 453. 

duim, 115 d. 

dum, see donee. Dum, while, with the Pres., 
336, Obs. 2, and (in the poets and later 
writers), with the Indie, where the Subj. 
might have been expected, 369, Obs. 3. Dum, 



donee, with the Perf., 338, Obs. 5. Exspecto, 
opperior dum, 339, Obs. 2 b, 360, Obs. 1. 
Dum, dummodo, dum ne, 351 b, Obs. 2. 
With Negations (nondum, &e), 462 a. 

e and i permuted, 5 c. 

e and a in the Nom. of Greek words, 35, Obs. 
1. .Eand i in the Abl. of the Third Declension, 
42,3. 

ecce, en, 236, Obs. 3. 

eccum, eccam, 83, Obs. 2. 

ecqvid, as an Interrog. Particle, 451 b, Obs. 

Ecthlipsis, 8. 

edim, 115 d. 

egeo, indigeo, with the Abl. and Gen., 261 
a, Obs. ; 295, Obs. 3. 

egenus, egentior, 65, 1, Obs. 

et expressed in Latin by e and I, 5 b, Obs. 2. 

Elision, 6. 

Ellipsis, 207, Obs. ; of the Verb, 479 ; in every- 
day, familiar discourse, 479 d. 

ellum, ellam, 83, Obs. 1. 

en, 236, Obs. 3. 

enim, for " namely," 435, Obs. 4 ; referring 
to ille, hie, 439, Obs. 2. In answers, yes (no), 
for, 454, Obs. 2. 

ens, 108, Obs. 1. 

eo (hoc)-qvo, 270, Obs. 1. 

eo (hoc), on that account, 257, Obs. 3. 

eo (hue) dementiae, 284, Obs. 9 ; eo loci, 284, 
Obs. 11. 

Epicoena, 30 a. 

Epistolary style, Tenses used in, 345. 

eqyidem, 489 b. 

er, Latin Termination for the Greek po£, 38, 1, 
Obs. Adjectives in er which follow the Third 
Decl., 59. 

eram, in conditional language instead of essem, 
348 c, Obs. and d. 

ergo, as a preposition with a Genitive, 172, 
Obs. 5. 

ergo, an Adverb, its position, 471. In resum- 
ing a discourse which has been interrupted, 
480. 

es, Greek nouns in, 35, Obs. 3. Greek Proper 
Names in es declined, 35, Obs. 4 ; 45, 2, d ; 
es, Greek Nom. Plu., 45, 5. 

es and is used indifferently in the Nom. of 
some words, 41 (p. 36). 

escit, esit, 108, Obs. 4. 

esse, to exist, to be, 209 b, Obs. 2. With an 
Adverb instead of the Predicative Noun {sic 
sum), ib. Esse pro hoste,ib. With the dative, 
246. Est mihi volenti, ib., Obs. 3. Esse odio, 
curae, &c, 249 ; esse solvendo, oneri ferendo, 
415, Obs. 1. Esse eonservandae libertatis, 
417, Obs. 4. Esse, manere, with the Abl. 



INDEX. 



491 



without in, 272, Obs. 2. Est meum {alicujus) 
facere, 282. Est in eo, ut faciam, 343, Obs. 
Est cur, qvamobrem, qvare, 372 b, Obs. 6. 
Est qvi, 365. 

et and qve, 433. Et for etiam, ib. Obs. 1 ; for 
a Comparative Conjunction, 444 b, Obs. 3. 
Et — et broken off, 480, Obs. 1. Et — qve, 
435, Obs. 1. Et — neqve, neqve — et, 458 c. 
Et non, et nemo (used rarely for neqve, neque 
qvisqvam), 458 a, Obs. 1 ; et non, "and not 
much rather," ib. Et harshly made to co- 
alesce with non, 458 a, Obs. 2. Et — et non, 
458 c, Obs. 1. Et is, " and that," 484 c. Et 
ipse, "likewise," 487 a, Obs. 2. 

etiam, "yes," 454; its Position in the sen- 
tence, 471. 

etiamsi, 361, Obs. 2. 

etsi, 361, Obs. 2. • Etsij tametsi, used to annex 
a remark, 443. 

Etymology, 175, Obs. 3. 

ex facili = facile, 301 b, Obs. 3. 

ex, Partitive, 284, Obs. 1 ; ex eo genere, qvi 
(plur.), ex eo numero, qvi (plur.), 317 c. 

eu, Diphthong, 5 b. 

evado, 221, note. 

eus, Greek termination, 38, 3. 

excusare morbum, 223 b ; aliqvid and se 
de aliqva re, ib. 

exosus, 161, Obs. 

exspecto, duin, 339, Obs. 2 ; 360, Obs. 1 ; 
exspecto ut, ib. 

facere, its Compounds, 143. Accentuation 
of its Compounds, 23, Obs. 1. Facere as the 
last part of the Compound, 204 ; 206 b 1, Obs 
2. Quid fades huic ? hoc? de hoc ? 241, Obs. 
5 ; 267, and Obs. Facere with a Gen. of 
Price, 294, and Obs. 1. Facere aliqvid alicu- 
jus, 231 ; aliqvid suae dicionis, sui arbitrii, 
ib., Obs. Facio aliqvem loqventem and loqvi, 
facio te videre, 372 b, Obs. 5. Facere non 
possum, 375 c. Facio omitted, 479 c. Facere 
ut, Periphrastic, 481 b. Fac cogites, 372 b, 
Obs. 4. Fac, "suppose," ib., Obs. 5. 

faeilis ad legendum for lectu, 412, Obs. 
3 (in the poets faeilis legi). 

familias, old Genitive, 34, Obs. 2. 

familiaris, familiarissimus, alicui and 
alicujus, 247 b, Obs. 1. 

fas, nefas dictu, 412, Obs. 1. 

faxo, faxim, 115/. 

Feet, see Verbal, Verse. 

feriatus, 146 , 2, Obs. 1. 

fidere, confidere, diffidere, their con- 
struction, 244, 264, Obs. 

fieri. Qvid net huic ? hoc ? de hoc ? 
241, Obs. 5 ; 267. Fieri alicujus, 281. 



Figures of Speech, 207, Obs. 
films, omitted, 280, Obs. 4. 
fore, forem, 108, Obs. 3. Forem, 377, Obs. 

2. Fore, ut, 410. Fore with the Part. Perf., 

410, Obs. 2. 
forsitan, with the Subj., 350 b, Obs. 3. 
Fractions, mode of expressing, Suppl. II. B. 
Frequentatives, of two kinds, 195. 
fretus, 268 c, and note, 
frustra esse, 209 b, Obs. 2. 
fuam, 108, Obs. 4. 

fuit aeqvnm, utilius, &c, 348 e, Obs. 
fueramfor eram, 338, Obs. 6 ; 342, Obs. ; 344, 

Obs. 1. 
Future, old. in so, 115 /. 
Future (simple) in the Indie, 339 ; in Subord. 

Prop., ib., Obs. 1 (compare 340, Obs. 1). 

Future (Simple and Perfect), 340, Obs. . 1. 

Fut. in praesenti (facturus sum), 341; in 

praeterito, 342 ; in futuro, 343. Fut. Indie. 

of the Second Person instead of the Imper., 

384, Obs. Fut. Subj. often not expressed, 

378 a; Periphrastically, 378 b. Fut. inpraet. 
in the Subj., 381. 

Futurum exactum, 340 (Obs. 1) ; in the Lead- 
ing and Subordinate Proposition at the same 
time, ib., Obs. 2; approaching in signification 
to the Simple Future, ib., Obs. 4 (odero, 
meminero, 161). Fut. Exact, in the Subj., 

379 ; as a Dubitative and Hypothetical Future, 

380 (Obs.) ; in Prohibitions with ne, 383. 
futurum esse, ut, 410; futurum, fuisse, 

ut, 409. 

Gender, 27 ; different in the Sing, and Plur., 
57. Gender of the Predicate where there are 
several Subjects, 214. 

Genitive in i in Proper Names of the Third 
Declension, 42, 2 ; is wanting in the Plur. of 
some words of the Third Declension, 44 c, 
Obs. 2, and e, Obs. ; Gen. Plur. in um instead 
of arum, orum, 34, Obs. 3; 37, Obs. 4; in 
orum for um, 44, 2 ; Greek Gen. in os, 45, 3 ; 
in us from words in o, ib. ; in on in the Plur., 
33 and 45, 7 ; in i in the Fourth Declension, 
46, Obs. 2. Signification of the Genitive 
Case, 279 and Obs. Gen. Possessive and Con- 
junctive, 280 ; with the force of an Adjective, 
280, Obs. 1 ; with the omission of the govern- 
ing Substantive, to be supplied from a preced- 
ing clause of the sentence, Obs. 2. Irregu- 
larities thence arising, ib. ; with the omission 
of uxor, filius, Obs. 4. Ambiguous, injuria 
sociorum, Obs. 5; Genitive Possessive with 
sum, fio, facio, 2S1 ; with sum in the signifi- 
cation, "to be suitable, proper," 282; Gen. 
Objective with Substantives, 283 ; used for the 



492 



INDEX. 



Adverbs in, erga, adversus, ib., Obs. 2 ; not 
merely used instead of the Accus. with Verbs, 
ib., Obs. 3; connected with the governing 
Substantive by sum, ib., Obs. 4. Partitive, 
284 (after Adjectives in the Neuter, Obs. 5 ; 
not to be employed in certain cases, Obs. 7 ; 
with Pronominal Adverbs of Place, hue de- 
mentiae, Obs. 9 ; the Genitives loci, locorum, 
terrarum, Obs. 10). Genitivus generis, 285 a 
(sestertii bini accessionis, Obs.) ; with Adjec- 
tives of Quantity and Neuter Pronouns, 285 
b; with satis, abunde ) &c, 285 c. Genitivus 
epexegeticus, 286 (instead of an Apposition 
Obss. 1, 2 ; with sum for the Nom. of a Pre- 
dicate Noun, Obs. 3) ; of quality, 287 (distin- 
guished from the Ablative of Quality, Obs. 2; 
with a Proper Name, Obs. 3). Several Geni- 
tives dependent on one Substantive, 288. 
Objective with Adjectives, 289, 290 (signifying 
" with respect to," 290 gr>. With Verbs, 291 — 
3. Of Price, 294. Genitive with interest and 
refert, 295 ; with impleo, egeo, ib., Obs. 3. 
Of the names of Towns of the First andSec- 
cond Declension in answer to the question 
where, 296 a. Genitive in Apposition to a 
Possessive Pronoun, 297 a. Genitive of the 
Gerund, 417. Gen. according to the Greek 
Idiom instead of the Abl., 262, Obs. 4. Posi- 
tion of the Genitive, 466; Gen. separated 
from the governing Noun, 467 c. 
gentilicia nomina, 190. 
gentium, 284, Obs. 10. 
Genus, see Gender. 

Gerund and Gerundive, 99. The Gerund 
as a case of the Infinitive, 413. Used indiffer- 
ently in the place of the Gerundive (of Transi- 
tive Verbs), ib., and Obs. 1. Gerund retained 
in the Gen. with a Subst. in the Gen. Plural 
{agrorum condonandi), 413, Obs. 2. — Accu- 
sative of the Gerund (or Gerundive), 414 b 
(with ad instead of the Second Supine, 412, 
Obs. 3). — Dative 415 (to signify a Purpose, 
Obs. 2) ; Abl., 416 (of the Way and Manner, 
Obs. 1; with what Prepositions not to be 
employed, Obs. 2 and 3). Gen., 417 (used 
indiscriminately with the simple Infinitive, 
Obs. 2 ; with the omission of the word causa, 
Obs. 5). Gerund (in the Abl. and Gen.) ap- 
parently Passive, 418. 
Gerundive for the Gerund, 413. With sum 
and alone to signify a thing that is to be done, 
420 (with a Negation to denote what is prac- 
ticable, Obs.). Ger. of Intransitive Verbs 
used Inpers. in the Neuter, 421 a ; in the 
older writers occasionally that of Trans. Verbs 
also with the Accus., ib. 6. Gerundive of 
utor, fruor, ib. a, Obs. 2. Gerundive with 



the object of certain Verbs (do, suscipio, ali- 
qvid faciendum), 422 ; with habeo, ib., Obs. 3. 

gratia, 257. 

Greek Nouns with Greek forms retained in 
Latin, 33, Obs. 3, and under the several De- 
clensions. 

H, its pronunciation, 9. 

habere, with a word in apposition to the Ob- 
ject (mostly in the Passive, habeor Justus), 227 
c, Obs. 1 ; pro hoste, in hostium numero, 
parentis loco, in parentis loco, ib. Habere, 
non (nihil) habere, qvod (ubi), 333. Non habere, 
qvid, 363, Obs. 2. Habere perspectum, 427. 
Habere aedem tuendam, 422, Obs. 3. Habeo 
dicer e, ib. 

Half-Deponents, 110, Obs. 2. 

haud, 455. Haud scio an, 453. 

hei mini, 238, Obs. 2. 

Hendiadys, 481 a. 

Heteroclita, heterogenea, 56, Obs. 

Hexameter, 503. 

Hiatus, 6 ; where tolerated, 502 b. 

hie, 485 (hie, qvi, ib. c; hie et hie, hie et ille 
Obs.). In Notices of Time, 276, Obs. 5. Hoc 
praemii, 285 b. Hujus non facio, 294, Obs. 
1. Hocpopulo, "with such a people," 277, 
Obs. 2. 

Hispanus, Hispaniensis, 192. 

hoc, "on this account," 257, Obs. 3. 

hospes, as an Adjective, hospita, 60, Obs. 2. 

humo, ab humo, 275 ; humi, 296 b. 

Hypothetical Propositions, see Conditional. 

I, where a Consonant (j ), 5 a, Obs. 2 ; changed 
to a Consonant (abjes), 5 a, Obs. 4. 1 and e 
interchanged, 5 c. J a Connecting Vowel, 176 
c, 205 a. 

Iambus, 499. Iambic Verses, 507. 

jamdiu, jamdudum with the present, 334, 
Obs. 

ibam, in the Imperf. for iebam, ibo in the 
future ioviam, 115 c. 

ictus femur, 237 c. Obs. 1. 

Ictus metricus an erroneous idea, 498, note. 

id aetatis, temporis, id generis for ejus gen- 
eris, 238. Id qvod, 315 6. 

idem qvi, idem ac, 324 &, Idem with the 
Dative, 247 6, Obs. 8. Idem, likewise (on the 
other hand), 488. 

idoneus qvi, 363; idoneus dare, ib., Obs. 
1. 

idus, Suppl. I. p. 479. 

ier, old termination of the Infinitive, 115 a. 

igitur, its position, 471. On resuming a dis- 
course which has been broken off, 480. 

ignoseere festinationi alicujus, 244, a., n. 



INDEX. 



493 



ille and hie, 485. In notices of Time, 276, 
Obs. 5. Referring to what follows, 485 b. 
Ille et ille, 485 c, Obs. 

im, a personal termination of Verbs, 115 d. 

imo, imo vero, 454. 

impedio, its construction, 375 a (Obs. 2) and 
6. 

Imperative, old in mino, 115 e. Pres. and 
Fut., 384. Expressed by a Subjunctive, 385. 
How expressed in the oratio obliqva, 404. 

Imperfect, 337. Of a thing which was on the 
point of happening, 337, Obs. 348 b. Imperf. 
Subj. irregularly employed after a Present in 
the Leading Proposition, 382, Obs. 2 ; Perfect 
to be used in Dependent Questions after a 
Present, ib., Obs. 4. Imperf. Subj. in Sub- 
ordinate Propositions, where the Present is 
made use of in English, 383. Imperf. and 
Pluperf. Subj. interchanged in Conditional 
Propositions, 347 b, Obs. 2. 

impero hoc fieri, imperor duci in career em, 
396, and Obs. 3. 

Impersonal Verbs, 165 seq. ; compare, 218 
b. Employed Personally, 218 a, Obs. 1. In- 
transitive Verbs used Impersonally in the 
Passive, 95, Obs. 218 c, 244 6. Impersonal 
Construction, 218. 

implere, complere, with the Gen. and 
Abl., 259 a, Obs. ; 295, Obs. 3. 

in a Negative Particle in compound words, 204, 
Obs. 2. 

in a Preposition with the Accus. and Abl., 230 
and Obss. With an Ablative of Time, 276, 
Obs. 1 and 3(" within," Obs. 4). In diebus 
(or simply diebus) decern, qvibus, 276, Obs. 4. 
In die, " a day," (bis in die), 276, Obs. 3. In 
Partitive, 284, Obs. 1. Verbs compounded 
with it with the Accus. or the Prep, repeated, 
224 b, Obs. 2 ; with the Dat. or the Prep, (in- 
cidere in aes and aeri inesse in, inesse rei) 
243, and Obs. 3 ; 245 b, Obs. 1. 

incessit timer, 133 {incesso). 

Inchoatives, 141, 196. 

Indeclinable Substantives, 54. 

Indicative, 331. In Hypothetical Proposi- 
tions for the Subjunctive, 343; of a thing 
which would be a duty, which ought to have 
been done, 348 e, and Obs. With srand ut in 
Protestations, 348 e, Obs. 3. With Indefinite 
Relatives, 362. Used by way of Exception 
and where the Subjunctive might have been 
expected, 356, Obs. 3 (in Dependent Interro- 
gative Propositions), 360, Obs. 3 {antegvam), 
368, Obs. 369, Obs. I,2,and3 (in Subordinate 
Propositions, which express the idea of a third 
party). 
induor, with the Accus., 237 a. 



Infinitive, its signification, 387. As a Sub- 
ject, 388 a, with the Obs. (rarely in Apposi- 
tion to a Substantive, 388 b, Obs. 1). After 
Verbs and Phrases, 389 (used indifferently 
with ut, Obs. 1 ; with j.aratus and the like, 
Obs. 3; employed indiscriminately with the 
Accus. with the Infin.,Obs 4). After doceo, 
jubeo,prohibeo, &c. (after jube or, &c), 390; 
in the Poets after various Verbs, Obs. 4 (after 
Verbs which govern the Dative, svadeo, &c, 
Obs. 5). With interest, inter, 391, Obs. In- 
finitive Historical, 392. Simple Infin. (Nom. 
with the Infin.) with verba declarandi and 
sentiendi in the Passive, with jubeor, videor, 
&c, 400 (in suspicionem venio fecisse, ib. c, 
Obs.) ; changed to the Accus. with the Infin., 
400 d. Simple Infin. for the Accus. with the 
Infin. in the poets, 401, Obs. 3. Infinitive 
instead of the Supine, or instead of the 
Gerund in the Genitive or with ad, 411, Obs. 
2; 412, Obs. 3; 417, Obs. 2; 419; instead of 
the Gerundive with do, &c, 422, Obs. 1. 
Cases with the Infinitive. 388 6, 393. The In- 
finitive understood from a Verb of another 
form, 478, Obs. 3. 
Infinitive, Accusative with the. Its Signi- 
fication, 394 (222, Obs. 1, 387, Obs.). With 
verba declarandi and sentiendi, after Phrases 
and Substantives, 395 (372, Obs. 5); in appo- 
sition to a Pronoun, 395, Obs. 1 ; after mitto, 
&c, Obs. 2; with spero, promitto, Obs. 3 ; 
previously pointed to by a Pronoun, or sic, 
ita, 395, Obs. 6. With verba voluntatis, 396 
(372 b, Obs. 2, 389, Obs. 4 ; with licet, 389, 
Obs. 5 ; in the later writers with perviitto, 
oro, &c. 396, Obs. 1). With verba affectuum, 
379 (used indifferently with qvod). In uni- 
versal judgments concerning a Relation, 398, 
a (373, Obs. 2). How distinguished from a 
proposition with qvod, 398 b, and Obs. 1. In 
Exclamations, 399. Accus. with the Infin., 
or Simple Infin. (Nom. with the Infin.) with 
the Passive of verba declarandi and sentiendi, 
400. Accus. with the Infin. in Relative Prop- 
ositions, 402 a, b ; in Propositions with qvam, 
402 c. Accus. with the Infin. after a general 
intimation of the purport of a speech or ar- 
gument, 403. In Questions in the orat. obliq., 
405. With the omission of the Reflective 
Pronoun as a Subject, 401 (of a Pronoun that 
is not Reflective, Obs. 2). Accus. with the 
Infin. Passive and a Simple Infin. combined, 
398 a, Obs. 3. Position of the Accus. with 
the Infin. and Combination with the Leading 
Proposition, 476 d. 
Infinitive, its Tenses, 406. 
Inflection, 25, with the Obs. 



494 



INDEX. 



iniqvi mei, 247 6, Obs. I. 

inqyam on returning to the subject of the 
discourse, 430. Inqvit, omitted, 479 b. 

infit, 162 c. 

instar "with the Genitive, 280, Obs. 6. 

inter, Partitive, 284, Obs. 1; repeated, 470, 
Obs. 2. Inter with the Gerund, 411 b. Inter 
tot annos, 276, Obs. 5, note. Inter se = se, 
sibi inter se, 490 c, Obs. 6. 

interdico, 261 b. 

interest, 295. 

Interjection, 24, 7. * 

interrogare aliqvem ambitus, 293, Obs. 
1. Interrogare, with two Accusatives, 228 6, 
Obs.l. 

intervallo {spatio) 234 b, Obs. 

Intransitive Verbs assume a Transitive Signi- 
fication, 223 c (Obs. 3); with an Accus. of 
the same stem, ib. , Obs. 4 ; become Transitive 
by being compounded with Prepositions, 224. 

invidere alicui ahqvid or aliqva re, invidere 
fortunae alicujus, .261 b, and Obs. 1. Invid- 
eor, 244, Obs. 4. 

io, Verbs in, which follow the Third Conjuga- 
tion, 100 c, Obs. 102, Obs. 2. 

ipse, without is, 487 a; ipse, signifying "ex- 
actly," ib., Obs. 1. Et ipse, ib. a, Obs. 2. 
Ipse drawn to the Subject or to some other 
case, ib. b ; suis ipsi scriptis, ib. Ipse for se 
ipsum, 490 c, Obs. 4. Nunc ipsum, turn ip- 
sum, 487 a, Obs. 1. 

ireultum, perditum, 411, Obs. 1. 

is omitted and inserted, 484 a. Et is (atque is), 
et is qvidem, 484 c. Is, qvicunqve, and is, 
si qvis, ib. b. Is, ejus, instead of se, suus, 
490 c, Obs. 3. 

Islands, the names of larger Islands, some- 
times constructed like the names of Towns, 
232, Obs. 3, 296 a, Obs. 1. 

iste, 486. 

ita and sic, 201, 5 ; ita sum, 209 b, Obs. 2. lta 
si, 442 a, Ita ut, 444 a, Obs. 3 {ita me di 
ament, ut). Ita " yes," 414. 

jubeo te facere, {ut facias) 390, and Ob3. 2 ; 
jubeo facere (without a person), ib., Obs. 3 • 
jubeo hoc fieri, ib., Obs. 3, and 396 (Obs. 3). 
Jubeor creari, ib., Obs. 3; jabeo and euro 
often omitted {facio for jubeo fieri), 481 a, 
Obs. 1. 

judicatus pecuniae, 293, Obs.l. 

junctus, with the Dative, 243, Obs. 4. 

ius, a termination of the Genitive, 37, Obs. 2. 

juvenis as an Adjective, 60 c, Obs. 4. 

K,8. 



L and r interchanged, 179, 8, Obs. 1 {clum, 

crum; bulum, brum), 180, 5 {al, ar), 187, 6 

{alis. aris). 
Leading Proposition, 325; entirely or partially 

introduced into the Subordinate Proposition, 

476 d. 
Letters, their Division, 4 seq. Gender of their 

Names, 31; their Names Indeclinable, 54, 

Obs. 1. 
libens, 167, Obs. 
libro and in libro, 273 b, Obs. 1. 
Licet tnihi esse civi (rarely civem), 393, and c, 

Obs. 1; licet esse civem, ib. ; licet me esse 

civem, 389, Obs. 5. Licet as a Conjunction, 

361, and Obs. 1. 
licent, licens, 218 a, Obs. 2. 
Liquids, 7. 
loci, locorum, with Adverbs of Place, 284, 

Obs. 10 Inter ea, postea loci, adhuc locorum, 

ib. Eo loci for eo loco, ib , Obs. 11. 
loco, 273 b, and Obs. 1. 
Logaoedic Verses, 508. 

M, its pronunciation, 8. 

macte, 268 a, Obs. 3. 

magis omitted or redundant, 308, Obs. 2. 

Magis and plus, 305 b, Obs. 2. Non magis 

{non — magis) qvam, ib. 
major, minor, natus, how constructed, 

306, Obs. (distinct from major natu). 
malim, mallem, 350 b, Obs. 1. 
mane, 54. 
manere with the Accus. and Dat., 223 c, and 

note, 
materia, materies, 56, 3. 
materialiter, words so employed, 31 ; when 

inflected, 219 c, Obs. 4. 
medius, medio, in media urbe, 273 b, 

311. Medius with a Partitive Genitive, ib. } 

Obs. Medius eo, 300 b. 
mei, tui, sui, as Objective Genitives, 297 6; 

as Partitive, 297 c. 
memini with the Gen. and Accus., 291, and 

Obs. 1. With the Pres. of the Infin. {memini 

puer), 408 b, Obs. 2. 
mereo, mereor, 148, Obs. and note. Mereo 

fieri and ut fiam, 389, Obs. 1. 
met, an Affix, 79, Obs. 2; 85, Obs. ; 92, Obs. 1. 
metrum, 497 ; metre, 509. 
militiaB, 296 b. 
mille, millia, 72. 
Million, how expressed in Latin, 73. 
minari alicui mortem, alicui baculo, 242, 

Obs. 1. 
minor natus, 306, Obs. 
minus with and without qvam, 305. 
miseret, misereor, miseror, 166. 



INDEX. 



495 



mitto ad aliqvem ut — , mitto ad aliqvem opus 

esse, 372 a; 395, Obs. 2. 
Mobilia substantiva, 181. 
moderari "with the Accus. and the Dat., 244 b, 

Obs. 1. 
Modi, 96, 329. 
Modi, compounds of (ejusmodi, &c.), 287, 

Obs. 1. 
modo (dummodo), modo ut, modo ne, 351 b, 

Obs. 2. Modo non, 462 a. 
Money, Computation of, Suppl. II. 
Monoptota, diptota, &c, 55. 
Months, Names of, 28 a; in er, 59, Obs. 2 (com- 
pare Suppl. I.). 
Moods, see Modi. 
moris est, 282, Obs. 2. 
Mountains, Names of, asplur. tantum, 51 g. 
moveri Cyclopa, 237 a, Obs. 
Multiplication expressed by Distributives, 76 6. 
multus {multa tabella), 65,-2, Obs. Multi et 

graves for multi graves, 300, Obs. 5. 
multum utor, 305 c, Obs. 2. Multo with 

the superlative, 310, Obs. 2. 
mutare, commutare permutare aliqvid aliqvo 

{cum aliquo), 259, Obs. 2. 

' ; Namely " not expressed, 435, Obs. 4. 

Zvames of Ships and Dramatic Compositions 
used as Feminines, 31, Obs. Proper Name, 
one that is common to two or more in the 
Plural, those which are not common being 
in the Singular, 214 d, Obs. 2. Proper Names 
not to be combined with all adjectives, 300 c, 
Ob3. 4. Plural of Proper Names, 50, Obs. 
4. 

National Names, 190, 191. Used as Adjectives, 
191. For the Names of Countries, 192, 
Obs. 2. 

natu, 55, 4; (grandis) major, 306, Obs. 

natus {annos) 234 c. Compared, 306, Obs. 

ne as a negative in compound words, 204, 
Obs. 3. 

ne, a Negative Particle, 456 (Ne qvis, that no 
one, ib. ; ut ne, ib.; ne tamen, Obs. 4). In 
Wishes, 351 6, Obs. 1 ; in Prohibitions, 386. 
Ne and ut ne in Object-clauses (35i), 372 b, 
375 a (omitted, cave putes, Obs. 1), 376 (with 
verba timendi). Ne non, ib. Ut understood 
from it, 462 b. Ne — qvidem, 457; after a 
Negation, 460, Obs. 2. 

-ne, Enclitic Interrogative Particle abbrevi- 
ated (viden), 6, Obs. 2. How used, 451 a; 
in Disjunctive Interrogations, 452. 

necesse est with the Subjunctive (with or 
without ut) or the Infin., 373, Obs. 1. 

necne, 452. 

nedum, 355, 461, Obs. 3. 



negare, dicere to be understood from it in 
the second clause, 462 b (compare 403 a, 
Obs. 2). 

Negation, Particles of, 455 seq. Negation con- 
tinued by aut or ve, 45S c, Obs. 2. Two 
Negations constitute an Affirmation, 460; in 
what cases this does not hold good, Obs. 2. 
Position of the Negative, 468. 

Negative answers, 454. 

nemo, without a Gen. in use (abl.), 91. 
Nemo scriptor y Gallus, doctus, ib., Obs. ; 
301 a, Obs. Nemo non, 460. An affirma- 
tive subject understood from nemo, 462 b. 

nempe, 435 a, Obs. 4. 

neqye (nee), 458 (neqve qvisqvam, &c), put 
instead of et and non, not belonging to the 
copula, ib. a, Obs. 2 ; with enim tamen, vero, 
ib. b; where " and ; ' is made use of in Eng- 
lish, ib. c, Obs. 2; instead of ne — qvidem, 
457, Obs ; neu, 459, Obs. Neqve — neqve 
broken off, 480, Obs. Neqve — et, 458 c. Neqve 

— aut, ib., Obs. 2. Number of the Predicate 
with Subjects which are connected by neqve 

— neqve, 213 b, Obs. 1. Nee non, 460, Obs. 1. 
(Neqve haud, ib., Obs. 2, note.) 

nescio an, 453. Nescio neque — neqve, 460, 
Obs. 2. Nescio qvis, nescio qvomodo, &c, 
356, Obs. 3. 

neve neu, 459. 

Neuter Plural, not formed from all adjectives, 
60 c. Neuter of the Predicate with a different 
Gender of the Subject, 211 b, Obs. 1 ; with 
several Subjects of different Gender, 214 6; 
of the same Gender, ib. c. 

ni, 442 c. 

nihil for non, 455, Obs. 4. Nihil aliud qvam, 
479, Obs. 5 ; si nihil aliud, ib. Nihil ad me, 
ib. d, Obs. 1. Nihil non, 460. Nihil ad- 
modum, 462 a. Nihili, nihilo, how used, 
494 b, Obs. 3. 

nisi and si non, 442 c. Nisi forte, nisi yero, 
ib., Obs. 1; nisi after negatives (nemo nisi), 
Obs. 2; introducing an exception, Obs. 3; 
nisi qvod, ib. Nihil (qvid) aliud nisi, 444 b, 
Obs 1. 

noli, nolito in prohibitions, 386, Obs. 2. 

110m.eJimihi est Mercurio, Mercurius, Mercurii, 
246, Obs. 2. Obsidum nomine, 258, Obs. 5. 

Noun forms of the Verb, 99. 

Nominative instead of the Vocative, 299, 
Obs. 1; in Apposition to the Vocative, 6, 
Obs. 2. Nom. with the Infin., 400 (401, Obs. 
3) ; a Nom. without a Verb, 479 d, Obs. 2. 

non instead of ne, 456, Obs 2. Non possum 
non, 455, Obs. 3. Non modo, non tantum, 
non solum, 461 a; non modo, non solum — 
sed ne — qvidem (sed vix), non modo non — 



496 



INDEX. 



sed ne — qvidem, ib. b; non modo — sed ne 
— qvidem for non modo non, ib. (non modo, 
sed omnino non, Obs. 1); non modo = non 
dico, ib., Obs. 2: non modo, "much less," 
ib., Obs. 3. Non ita, non item, nondum 
necdum, 462 a. Non qvo and non qvin, 357 
b, Obs. Non, si — idcirco, 442 a, Obs. 3. 

nonne, 451 c. 

nonnemo, 493 c, Obs. 

nonae, Suppl. I. 

nos, noster, for ego, meus, 483". 

nostrum, vestrum, as Partitive Genitives, 
297 c ; as Possessive Genitives with omnium, 
ib. a, Obs. ; as Objective, ib. c, Obs. 

nudiustertius, nudiusqvartus, 202, Obs. 

nullus in the Gen. and Abl. for nemo, 91. 
Nullius, nullo (rarely) for nullius rei, nulla re. 
494 b, Obs. 3. Nullus for non, 455, Obs. 5 ; 
nulla rheda, " -without a carriage," 258. 

num, numne, numqyid, 451 b. 

Number of the Predicate with several Subjects, 
213 ; Peculiarities of Numbers of Substan- 
tives, 50. See Singidar, Plural. 

Numeral Adverbs, 199 ; in um and o, ib., Obs. 
2. With sestertium, Suppl. II. 

Numeral Signs, 70, and Obs. 2. 

Numerals, 24, 2, Obs. Their Classification, 69. 

nuptum dare, 411, Obs. 1. 

O and u related, he; o instead of u after v, 5 

a, Obs. 3. 
O Interjection with the Accus. or Voc, 236, 

Obs. 1. O, si-, 351 b, Obs. 1. 
obeqyitare with the Accus. or Dat., 224 a, 

Obs. 1. 
Object, 210 a, 222, and Obs. 1. 
Object Clauses, with ut and other Particles, 

371 seq. 
Oceanus, mare Oeeanum, 191, Obs. 1. 
oe, for the Greek Nom. termination qi, 38, 1. 
oleo with the Accus., 223, Obs. 2. 
ollus, 82, Obs. 1. 
On, a Greek termination of the Genitive, 38, 1, 

45,7. 
On, Nominative termination of Greek Proper 

Names, and o, 45, 1. 
operatus, 146, Obs. 1. 
oportet with the Subj. (with or without ut) 

or the Infin., 373, Obs. 1 ; oportet hoe fieri, 

398 a, Obs. 2. Oportebat, oportuit, oportue- 

rat, of a thing which would have been proper 

in a certain case, or which should have been 

done, 348 c, and Obs. Oportuit faetum, 407, 

Obs. 1. 
opto, ut fiam and fieri, 389,'Obs. 1. 
opus est, 266 (Hirtium convenire, Hirtium 

conveniri, Hirtio convento, Obs.). 



Oratio obliqva, 369, 403; continuous, 

403 6. 
Ordinal Numbers, 69, 74; with qvisqve, 74, 

Obs. 2. Adjectives formed from them, 187, 9. 
oriundus, 151 (orior). 
Orthography, Roman, unsettled, 12. 
ortus aliqvo and ab aliqvo, 269, Obs. 
orum, termination of the Genitive, for um, 

44,2. 
OS and or in the Nom. of some words, 41 (p. 

38). 
6s, a Greek termination of the Genitive, 45, 3. 
6s, Greek Nom. of the Second Declension, 38, 

Obs. 2. 
ovans, 164, Obs. 

pace alicujus, 258, Obs. 5. 

paene, prope, with the Perf. Indie, 348 e, 
Obs. 1. 

Paeon, 499. 

par, Ablat., 42 b, Obs. Pardlicui and alicujus, 
247 6, Obs. 1. 

paratus with the Infin., 389, Obs. 3. 

Parisyllaba in es and is, 40 c, Obs. 1. 

pars — pars with the Plur. of the Predicate, 
215 a. Partem (magnam partem), 237 c, 
Obs. 3. Partibus without in, 273 b, Obs. 1. 

Participles, 99. Compared, 62 ; in bundus, 
115 g. Formed from some Impersonal Verbs, 
167, Obs. How used, 423, 424 (to denote a 
circumstance). Participle governing a Rela- 
tive or Interrogative Pronoun, 425, Obs. 3 ; 
with nisi, qvanqvam, &c, instead of a whole 
Proposition, ib., Obs. 4 (428, Obs. 2). A Par- 
ticiple used as a Substantive, 424 a ; as an 
Adjective, 424 6. Participles in Ablatives 
Absolute, 428. Ablatives of a Participle alone, 
429. Participles used together with other 
ways of denoting circumstances, 430. Par- 
ticiples with a Predicate Noun (judicatus 
hostis), 227 c, Obs. 4. Relation of the Parti- 
ciple to the Leading Verb in respect of Time, 
431a. 

Participle Fut. irregularly formed in some 
Verbs, 106, Obs. 2. Not used as an Adjective, 
424 b, Obs. Limited employment of it by 
the older writers, ,425, Obs. 5, 424 ; rare in 
Ablative Absolute, 428, Obs. 3. With sum, 
341 ; fui, eram, 342, 348 a ; ero, 343 ; fuerim, 
381 ; Suisse, 409. 

Participle Perf. of some Intrans. Verbs, 110, 
Obs. 3 ; of Deponents with a Passive significa- 
tion, 153. With an Accus. (in the poets), 
237 b. With fui as a Perfect to express a 
Condition, 344. In the Neuter as a Substan- 
tive (bonam factum, bene factum), 424 c. 
With a Substantive (rex interfectus) denotes 



INDEX. 



497 



substantively the Action performed (caedes 
regis), 426. A Neuter Part, put alone in 
this signification, 426, Obs. 1. With habeo, 
427. Part. Perf. of Deponents with the sig- 
nification of a Present, 431 b. That of 
other Verbs rarely so used, ib., Obs. Part. 
Perf. in Ablatives Absolute of a circumstance 
that accompanies or follows the action, ib., 
Obs. 2. 

Participle present as an Adjective with the Geni- 
tive, 289 a. 

Particles, 24, 6, Obs. 

partim with the Gen., 284, Obs. 4. 

pascens, Particle of pasco and of pascor, 111, 
Obs. 

Passive, not formed from all Verbs which may 
have an Accus., 223 c, Obs. 1; 224 c. Obs. 
Rare from Verbs which govern the Dative, 
244, Obs. 4. In some Verbs with a new Active 
signification, 237 a. Used with a Reflective 
signification, 222, Obs. 3.; Passive of some 
Verbs followed by an Infin. Passive (qvitus 
sum, neqvitur), 159, Obs. 2; see coeptus 
sum, 

paterfamilias, 34, Obs. 2.. 

Patronymics, 183. 

pensi nihil habere, 285 b, Obs. 2. 

Pentameter, 504 b. 

per prefixed to Adjectives with an Intensive 
signification, 68 c, Obs. (Tmesis, 203, Obs.) 

per, Preposition to express the duration of 
Time, 235. Per vim, simulationem, per 
causam remigum exercendorum, 258, Obs. 2. 
Per me licet, potes, 256, Obs. 1. 

perdo, in the Passive usually pereo (except 
perditus), 133, Do . Obs. 

Perfect, its Formation, 103. Syncope and 
Contraction. 113 a. Irregular with respect 
to the Present, 117, seq. Historical, 335 a; 
definite, ib. b. Of actions, which are repeated, 
-with qvum, &c, ib. b, Obs. 1. Used in the 
poets of a thing which usually happens, ib., 
Obs 3. With postqvam, &c, 333 b; with 
anteqvam, &cl, ib., Obs. 5. Perfect of a 
Condition in the Passive with /iei, 314. Perf. 
Subj. sometimes used instead of the Imperf. 
with ut, qvin, 332, Obs. 3. In Subordinate 
Propositions with an Accus. with the Infin., 
382. Perf. Subj. in the Passive in Prohibi- 
tions with ne, 336. Perf. Inf. of a Completed 
Action (poteras dixisse) with satis est, poeni- 
tebit, &c, 407 (with oportuit, &c, Obs. 1) ; as 
a Pluperf . after a Preterite, 408 b ; instead of 
the Present in the poets, 407, Obs. 2 ; formed 
with fuisse in the Passive, 408 a. Present 
and Perfect Infin. with memini, 408 b, Obs. 2. 



periculo alieujus, at any one's peril, 258, 
Obs. 5. 

perinde and proinde qvasi; perinde ac 
(si), 444 a, Obs. and b. 

Period, Structure of Periods, 475 — 477. 

Periphrastic Conjugation, see Conjugatio. 

* Periphrastic Conjugation, 116. Use of it in the 
Indie. 341 seq.; in the Subjunct., 381; in 
the Infin. 409. 

perosus, 161, Obs. 

Perseus, declension of, 38, 3. 

Person of the Predicate where there are 
several Subjects, 212. Person, the Second, 
of an assumed Subject, 370. The Third Per- 
son Singular without a defined Subject in 
Subordinate Propositions with the Infinitive, 
388 b, Obs. 2; the Third Person Plural with- 
out a defined Subject, 211 a, Obs. 2. 

Personal Forms, 98. 

Phraseological peculiarities of the Latin lan- 
guage, 481 6. 

Place, Adverbs of, 201, 1. 

plenus with the Gen. and Abl., 268 a, Obs. 1, 
290 e. 

Pleonasmus, 207, Obs. 481 b. 

Pluperfect, see PLusqvamperfectum. 

Plural formed from words which commonly 
want it, 50, and Obs. 1. Plural formed in 
Latin from the names of General Ideas, ib., 
Obs. 3. Plural of Adjectives used Substan- 
tively, 301 ; of Pronouns, 312. 

Pluralia tantum, of two kinds, 51 ; with Distri- 
butives, 76 c. 

plus with and without qvam, 305. For magis 
ib. c, Obs. 2 [animus plus quam fraternus). 
U no plus and plures, ib., Obs. 3. 

Plusqvamperfectum, 333; with qvum, &c, of 
Repeated Actions, where the Imperf. is used 
in English, ib. a, Obs. Pluperf. Subj. 379; 
not used in Conditional Propositions which 
on another account would have had the Sub- 
junctive, 331. Changed with the Imperf. in 
Condit. Prop., 347 b, Obs. 2. Represented in 
the Infin. by the Part. Fut. with fuisse, 
409. 

poenitet hoe, 218 a, Obs. 2. Poenitendo, 
ad poenitendum, ib., Obs. 3. 

pondo, 54, Obs. 3. 

Position, 15.22; weak, 22. 

Position of the Verb sum, 465 a, Obs. 3; sepa- 
rated from the Participle, Obs. 4. Position of 
est, sunt, with enim, &c, 471, Obs. 1. Est 
and sunt omitted, 479 a. Esse omitted, 39S, 
Obs. 2 (volo consultum), and 403 (401). 

posse as a Future, 410, Obs. 1. 

postqyanij posteaqvam, with the Perf. 



32 



498 



INDEX. 



838 b; with the Plup., Obs. 1; with the Im- 
perf., Obs. 2. Post diem decimum qvam, 276, 
Obs. 6; post decern dies quam, 270, Obs. 4. 

postridie, 230 b, Obs. 1. Suppl. I. 

potiri rerum, 265, Obs. 1. 

potius omitted and redundant, 308, Obs. 2. 
Potius (citius) qvam (quam ut) with the Sub- 
junctive, 330, Obs. 4. 

prae lacrimis, 256, Obs. 1. 

prae with an Intensive signification prefixed 
to Adjectives, 68 c, Obs. 

praestare alicui and aliquem, 224 d. 

praeter as an Adverb, 172, III., Obs. 2. 

prae vert o j praevcrtor, 133 (verto). 

Predicate, 208 a. Simple, resolved, Predicate 
Noun, 209 a. The Predicate Noun repre- 
sented by a Pronoun, 209 a, Obs. 1. Relation 
of the Predicate where there are several Sub- 
jects, as to Person, 212 ; Number, 213 ; Gen- 
der, 214. Referred to the more remote 
Subject, ib. d, Obs. 3. Defined by the nat- 
ural character of the Subject, 215. The 
Verb regulated according to the Predicate 
Noun, 216. With a Subject which has an 
Apposition differing from it in Gender or 
Number, 217. Referred to a Noun appended 
by qvam or nisi, 217, Obs. 2. 

Prefixes, 204. 

Prepositions, 24, 5. Enumerated, 172. Used 
as Adverbs, ib., Obs. 2. Modified in Compo- 
sition, 178. Prepositions with their case im- 
mediately attached to a Substantive, 298 
(sometimes by means of a Participle, ib , Obs. 
1). Poation of tho Prepositions, 469 with 
Obss. 1 and 2 ; the Prep, repeated, 470 
Position less restricted in the poets, 474 c. 
The Prep, omitted with the Relative, 323 b, 
Obs. 1. Prepositions Inseparable, 204. 

Present of Verbs sometimes has the varied 
stem, 118. Present of a thing which still 
continues, 334, Obs. Historical, 333 (in the 
poets, Obs. 1) ; treated as a Present and as a 
Perfect, 382, Obs. 1. With dum, " while," 
336, Obs. 2. For the Future, 339, Obss. 1 
and 2. Present Subj. supplying the place of 
the Future, 378 a; in Conditional Proposi- 
tions, 317 b (Obss. 1 and 3). In Hypothetical 
Propositions of Comparison, 349, Obs. ; of the 
Subjunctive Potential, 350. 

pridie, poctridie, 230 b, Obs. 1 (p. 203). 

Primitives, 174. 

primuin, primo, 199, Obs. 2. 

princeps, 60 c, Obs. 4. 

priusqvam, see Anteqyam. 

pro shortened in some compounds, 173, Obs. 2. 

pro, Interjection (pro deumjidem), 236, Obs. 1. 



probare alicui sententiam, 242, Obs. 1. 

proeul a mari and procul mari, 172, 
Obs. 3. 

proMbere Campaniam populationibus, cives 
a periculo, 262. Prokibeo with ne, qvominus, 
Infin., Accus. with the Infin., 375 a (Obs. 
2) ; b, 390, 396 ; opera prohibenter fieri, 398, 
Obs. 3. 

promitto me facturum, 395, Obs. 3. 

Pronoun, 24, 2, with the Obs. Classification 
of the Pronouns, 78. Personal Pronouns in- 
serted and omitted, 482. Gen. Plur 297 a, 
Obs. The Objective Gen. supplied by mei, 
tui, &c, ib. b. Partitive Gen., ib. c. 

Pronoun (Demonstrative) referring to several 
Substantives, 312 a; in the Neuter Plur., ib. 
b. Agrees with the Substantive in the Predi- 
cate, 313 ; connected with a Substantive 
instead of being put in the Genitive, 314. Re- 
ferred less accurately to the preceding Noun, 
317. Put after the Relative, 321. Omitted 
before the Relative, ib., with the Obs. Re- 
dundant after a Noun separated by an Inter- 
vening Proposition, 489 a; with qvidam ,ib. 
b ; see also hie, is, ille, isle. 

Pronoun (Relative) referred to several Sub- 
stantives, 315 a; the Substantive repeated 
with it, ib. a, Obs. 2. Referred to the fol- 
lowing Substantive, 316. Referred less accu- 
rately to the Preceding Noun (in several 
ways), 317 (to the Person indicated by a Pos- 
sessive Pronoun, ib. a). Draws the Substan- 
tive to it, 319, 320. Draws a Superlative to it 
from the Leading Proposition, 320; precedes 
the Demonstrative, 321. Omitted in the 
second member of the sentence or replaced by 
a Demonstrative, 323. Put by attraction in 
the case of the Demonstrative, ib., Obs. 2. 
Relative after idem, 324 b. The Relative 
drawn into a Subordinate Proposition belong- 
ing to the Relative Proposition, 445 ; forming 
a Periphrasis for pro, 446 ; used Copulati very 
in the place of a Demonstrative, 448 ; not put 
with Adversative or Illative Particles, ib., 
Obs. Relative Correlatives, 324 a. Position 
of Relative Words, 465 b; of the Relative 
Prop, before the Demonstrative. 476 a, Obs. 
2. Subjunctive in Relative Propositions, 
see Subjunctive. 

Pronoun (Indefinite Relative), 87, sometimes 
employed as an Indefinite Universal, 87, Obs. 
1, 93; Obs. 1; 201, 2, Obs. 2. With the In- 
dicative, 332. 

Pronoun (Indefinite), 89, 493 (see qvis, aliqvis, 
&c). Omitted before the Relative, 322. 

Pronoun (Interrogative), 88. Belonging to a 



INDEX. 



499 



Participle, 325, Obs. 3. Two combined, 
492 a. 

Pronoun (Possessive), 92. Combined with a 
Genitive, 297 a. Used for the Objective 
Genitive (mei, &c), ib. b, Obs. 1. Omitted, 
491. Denotes what is Suitable and Advan- 
tageous, ib., Obs. 1. 

Pronoun (Reflective), 85. Sui as an Objective 
Genitive, 297 b (sui conservandi causa for the 
Plural, 417). Se omitted as the Subject of an 
Infinitive Proposition, 401. Se and suus not 
referred to the Subject, 490 b ; in the Sub- 
ordinate Prop, referred to the Subject of the 
Leading Prop., ib. c (Obs. 1). Confounded 
with is, ib., Obs. 3. Se, suus, in the signifi- 
cation one (one r s), ib., Obs. 5. 

Pronominal Adverbs, 201. 

Pronunciation according to Quantity and Ac- 
cent, 14, 498, note. 

prope, prope ab, 172, Obs. 4. Propius, 
proxime, with the Accus. (rarely, with the 
Dat ), ib. Propius ab, 230, Obs. 2 (p. 207). 

propior, proximus, with the Dat. and (less 
frequently) the Accus., 230, Obs. 2 (p. 203), 
247 b ; proximus ab, ib. 

Propositions, their kinds, 325. Compound 
Propositions, ib. Co-ordinate Propositions, 
328. Two Co-ordinate Propositions combined 
so as to form one Assertion, 433. Sequence 
of the Propositions, 475, 476. Leading and 
Subordinate Proposition intimately com- 
bined, 476 d, in the poets, 474 h. 

proprius with the Gen., more rarely with the 
Dat,, 290/. 

Prosody, 14. 

Protasis, 323, Obs. 2. 

pro tua praesentia, 446. 

providus, providentior, 65, Obs. 

prudens with in, and with the Gen., 289 b, 
Obs. 3. 

-pte, 92, Obs. 1. 

pudet, hoc pudet, 218 a, Obs. 2. Pudendi, 
pudendo, ib., Obs. 3. Pudet me alicujus, 
292. 

pugno, Compounds of it which govern the 
Accus., 225 Obs. 

Qv,8. 

qva, qvae in the Nom. Sing. Fern, and Plur. 

Neuter, 90. 
qva— qva, 435, Obs. 3. 
qvaero ex, 223 b. 
qvaeso r qvaesumus, 137 [qvaero). 
qualiscunqve, quantuscunqve, 93, and 

Obs. 1. 
quam with the Comparative, 303 a ; inserted 



or omitted with plus, amplius, minus, 305. 
Quam and ac, 444 b). Qvam pro, 308, Obs. 1. 
(31ajor) qvam, at qvam qui, ib., Obs- 1, 364, 
440 a. Qvam maximus, qvam possum maxi- 
mus, 310, Obs. 3. Quam for postqvam, 276, 
Obs. 6, note. Qvam with the second member 
of a Comparison inserted before the Compar- 
ative, 303 a, Obs. 2. Quam separated from 
its Adjective, 468 Obs. 

qvamobrem 9 qvare (est, nihil est, qv.), 372 
b, Obs. 6. 

qvam quam, 361, Obs. 2, with the Subjunc- 
tive for qvamvis, ib., Obs. 3. Lntroducing 
an Observation, 443. 

qvamvis (qvantumuis), 361 (Obs. 1); with the 
Indie, for qvamqvam, Obs. 3; with Adjec- 
tives, 443, Obs. 

Quantity, 14. Of the final vowel of Verb 
Stems in Inflection and Derivation, 102, Obs. 
1, 176 d. 

qvantus potest maximus, 310, Obs. 3. 

qvaqva, Ablat. of a later period, 87. 

qvare (est, qvare), 372 b, Obs. 6 ; u that by 
those means," "so that, on that account," 
440, Obs. 5. 

qvasi, 444 a, Obss. 1 and 2 ; what Tense it 
takes, 349, Obs. 

-qve, its Signification, 433; after Negations 
for sed, ib., Obs. 2; qve — et, qve — qve, 435 
a, Obs. 1. Qve (ve, ne) with Prepositions, 
469, Obs. 2 ; transposed in the poets, 474 / 
(Obs.). Lengthened in the Arsis, 502 a; eli- 
ded at the end of an Hexameter, 503, Obs. 1. 

qveo occurs mostly in Negative Propositions, 
159, Obs. 1. Quitus sum, ib., Obs. 2. 

Questions, Direct and Dependent, 331; De- 
pendent in the Subjunctive, 355 (exception, 
ib., Obs. 3); in the Subj. when an inquiry is 
made what is to be done, 353 ; Elliptical 
Question with ut, ib., Obs. Questions with- 
out a Particle, 450. Interrogative Particles, 
451 ; with Disjunctive Questions, 452. Ques- 
tions connected by aut not Disjunctive, 453, 
Obs. 2. Questions in the oratio obliqva, 405, 
Interrogative Exclamation of Surprise, ex- 
pressed Affirmatively, 492 b. 

qvi, Ablative, 86, Obs. 2 ; Interrogative Ad- 
verb, 88, Obs. 2. 

qvi qvidem, qvi modo, 364, Obs. 2. 

qvi non and qvin, 440, Obs. 3 ; 365, Obs. 3. 

qvia, what Mood it takes, 357. 

qvicunqve (qvaliscunqve, qvilibet), divided 
by Tmesis, 87, Obs. 2. Without a relative 
signification, ib., Obs. 1. Quicunqv? and the 
Particles derived from it, with the Perf. and 
Pluperf. Indie, 335 b, Obs. 1 ; 338 a, Obs. 



500 



INDEX. 



With the Indie, or the Subj. of the Pluperf., 
359. 

qyid hominis es? 285 b. 

qvid, Elliptical expressions with it, 479 d, 
Obs. 1. 

qyid (Roscium) censes monne — ? 395, 
Obs. 7. 

qvidam, 493 c. 

qvidem, its position, 471, "with a Pronoun 
prefixed, 489 b. 

qvin, its Signification, 375, Obs. 4. After 
verba praetermittendi, dubitandi. &e, where 
their negative force is destroyed, ib. c (Obs. 
1); qvis ignorat, qvin, Obs. 3. Qvin imus? 
qvin taces ? 331 b, Obs. 3. Qvin, " but that," 
440 a, Obs 3. For qvi non, 365, Obs. 3. Non 
qvin (=non qvia non), 357 b, Obs. 

qvippe qvi, 336, Obs. 2. 

qvis and qvi, Interrog. Pronoun, 88, 1 ; In- 
definite, 89, 90, 1. Qvis, Indef. Pronoun, 
how used, 493 a; Adverbs derived from it, 
201, 2, Obs. 1. 

quispiam, 493 b. 

qvisqvam and ullus, 90,3, 494 (in Negative 
and other propositions). Used indifferently 
with aliqvis, 494 b, Obs. 2. 

qvisqve, its Signification (distributive) and 
Position, 495. With the Superlative, ib. 
With qvotus and Ordinal numbers, 74, Obs. 
2. Optimus qvisqve with the Verb in the 
Plur., 215 a. Qvisqve in apposition to a 
Subject in the Plural, 217, Obs. 1. Not used 
for omnes, nemo non, 495, Obs. 1. 

qvis qvis, usual forms, 87. Qvicqvid, anti- 
quated for qvidqve, 495, Obs. 1. 

quo=ad quern, ad quos, 317, Obs. 2. Qvo 

- mild with the Accus. or with an Infin., 239. 
Qvo=ut eo, 440, Obs. 5. Non qvo, 357 b, 
Obs. Qvominus, 375, c, Obs. 1. 

quoad ejus, 281, Obs. 9. 

qvod a Causal Particle with the Indie, or 
Subj., 357; qvod diceret, ib. a, Obs. 2; after 
the verba affectuum, 379. Shows a Fact as the 
object of a Judgment, 393 b (Obs. 1). Qvod 
"as to the fact, that," ib., Obs. 2. Before 
other Conjunctions {qvod si, &c), 449. (Pro- 
noun qvod pointing to an Accus. with the 
Infin. following, ib.) Qvodsciam, 364, Obs. 
2. Nihil est. qvod, there is no reason why — , 
372 b, Obs 6. 

qvominus, sec Qvo. 

qvoqve, its Position, 471. Non modo — sed 
quoqve for sed eliam, 461, Obs. 

qvoqvo modo, 87, Obs. 1. 

qLVOties with the Perf. Indie, 335 b, Obs. 1 ; 
with the Pluperf. in the Indie, or Subj., 359. 



qvotus qvisqve, 74, Obs. 2. 

qvum with the Perf. and Pluperf. Indie, 335 
b, Obs. 1 ; 338 a, Obs. Qvum causale with 
the Subj., 358. Qvum temporale with the 
Indie, and Subj. of the Imperf. and Pluperf., 
ib. ; qvum (qvum interim) introducing the 
notice of an Event, ib., Obs. 1; qvum, since, 
ib ; qvum, while, with the Indie, Obs. 2; 
qvum, although, with the Subj., Obs. 3. 
Qvum with the Indie, or the Subj. to desig- 
nate Repeated Actions, 359. Qvum — turn, 
358, Obs. 3 (distinct from turn — turn, 435 
a, Obs. 3). Auditum est ex eo, qvum diceret, 
358, Obs. 4. Qvum with the Historical 
Infin., 392. 

H put for 5, 8 ; r and I interchanged, see I. 

Radix, see Root. 

ratio nulla est with the Infin., 417, Obs. 2. 

re and ris, Personal termination, 114 b. 

re a Particle used in Composition, 204; its 
quantity, ib. 

reapse, 82, 4. 

reddo not used in the Passive for fio, 227 a, 
note 

Reduplication, 103, and Obs. (In rettuli, &e, 
204, Obs. 1.) 

refert, 166 c, 295- 

refertus, 268 a, Obs. 1. 

Reflective Verbs expressed by the Passive, 222, 
Obs. 3. 

Relative Indefinite Pronouns and Particles 
employed in designating repeated actions 

• with the Perf. Indie, 335 b, Obs. 1 ; with the 
Pluperf, 338 a, Obs. ; with the Subj., 359. 

Relative Propositions to denote an Object and 
Motive, 327 ; in the Subj., 333, seq. In what 
cases they are not to be formed, 447. See be- 
sides Pronoun (relative). 

reliqvi nihil facere, 285 b, Obs. 2. 

reliqvum est, relinqvitur, restat ut, 
373. 

repetundarum, repetundis, 55, 5. 

res used Periphrastically, 301 6, Obs. 1 ; in- 
stead of an Impersonal expression, 218 c, 
Obs. 

Rhenum flumen for Rhenus, 191, Obs. 1. 

Rivers (names of), their Gender, 28 a. 

Root, 26, Obs. 1, 174 ; enlarged in the Present 
of Verbs, 118. 

pog (with the consonant preceding), a Greek ter- 
mination, corresponding to the Latin in er, 38, 
Obs. 

rudis rei and in re, 289 b, Obs. 3. 

rus, to the country, 233; rure, ruri, in the 
country, 273 b; rure, from the country, 275. 



INDEX. 



501 



S, at the end of words had anciently a weaker 
pronunciation, 22, Obs. 4. Between two 
vowels has been changed to r, 8 (40, 2, Obs., 
41, p. 35, note 1). 

saltare Tunmm, 223 c. 

salve, salvere, 164. 

sapere with the Accus., 223 c, Obs. 2. 

satis with the Genitive, 285 c. 

SCO a Verbal termination, 140 — 142. 

se, sibi, see Reflective Pronoun. 

se, a Particle in compound words, 204. 

secundo, 199, Obs. 2. 

seeundo fiuinme, 300, Obs. 1. 

secus virile, muliebre, 55, 5. 

sed, 437. On resuming a discourse, 480 (sed 
tamen). 

semis, Suppl. II. B, 2 Obs. ; semi, 204, 
Obs. 4. 

senex as an Adjective (in the poets), 60 c, 
Obs. 4. 

sententia mea, 258, Obs. 3. 

seqyior, secius, 66 b, Obs. 

seqyitur, Ut (less frequently the Accus. with 
thelnfin.), 373, Obs. 2. 

sesqui, 204, Obs. 4. 

sestertius, sestertia, sestertium de- 
cies, Suppl. II. A. 

sexcenti, denoting a great number, p. 70, 
note. 

Si with the Subj., 347. Omitted, 442 a, Obs. 
2. Si forte, si modo, si jam, si maxime, si 
qvidem, si more accurately denned by an- 
other si, ita, si, 442 a; si non, distinct from 
nisi, 442 c; si (sin) minus, ib. Si nihil 
aliwi, 479, Obs. 5. Sin (sin autem), 442 b. 
Si as an Interrogative Particle (whether), 
451 d. 

sic sum, 209 b, Obs. 2. 

Signification of Substantives, different in the 
Plur. and in the Sing., 52. 

similis with the Pat. and the Gen., 247 6, 
Obs. 2 ; 219, Obs. 2. 

Simul his for cum his, 172, Obs. 3. Simul — 
simid, 435, Obs. 3. 

sine ullo auxilio (not sine omni), 494 a (non 
sine aliqvo, Obs. 1). Never used with the 
Gerund, 416, Obs. 3. 

Singular of certain Substantives used collec- 
tively (eqves, pedes), 50, Obs. 5. 

singuli, 76 a; in singulos terni or ires, ib., 
Obs. 

sinisterior, 67 d, Obs. 2. 

sino {ut) vivat, sino eum vivere, hoc 
fieri, 372 b, Obs. 2 ; 390 (Obs. 1) ; 396. Ac- 
cusare non sum situs, 390. 

sirim, 136, Obs. (sino). 



Sive, seu, 436; = vel si, 442 b; sive — sive, 
ib. ; with the Indie, 332, Obs. 

" So called," 431 b, Obs. 1. 

sociare aliqvid alicui, 243, Obs. 4. 

sonare hominem, 223, Obs. 2. 

spero facere for me facturum is rare, 395, 
Obs. 3; spero me posse, 410, Obs. 1. 

Spondee, 499. 

sponte, 55, 4. 

stare with the Ablative, 267. Stat per ali- 
qvem, qvominus, 375 b. 

Stem, 26, 40. Stem of Verbs varied in the 
Present, 118. 

Strophe, 509. 

svadere, its Construction, 242, Obs. 1. 

sub with the Accus. and the Abl., 230. Verbs 
compounded with it, 243, 245 (subjicio, sub- 
jungo sub, 243, Obs. 1). In some Com- 
pounds sus, 173 ; with a Diminutive signifi- 
cation, 206 a. 

subire montem (in the poets portae, animo), 
224 a, Obs. 1. 

Subject, 208 a; Omitted, ib. b, Obs. 2, 3; in 
a Subordinate Proposition subjoined to an 
Infinitive, 388 b, Obs. 2 ; the Reflective Pro- 
noun as a Subject omitted in an Infinitive 
Proposition, 401 ; also one that is not Reflec- 
tive, ib., Obs. 2. Several Subjects varying in 
their grammatical character, 212, seq. 

Subjunctive, its Signification, 346. In Hypo- 
thetical Propositions, 347. In Hypothetical 
Propositions of Comparison, 349. Potentialis, 
350 ; in a Modest Afiirmation, 350 b (in Sub- 
ordinate Propositions, with Conjunctions 
which otherwise take the Indicative, ib. Obs. 
2). As an Optative in Wishes, 351. As an 
Imperative and in Prohibitions, 3S5, 386. In 
the Imperf. and Pluperf. of a thing which 
ought to have been done, 351 b, Obs. 4. In 
Concessions and Assumptions, 352. In Ques- 
tions as to what is or may be done, 353. In 
Object. Clauses after ut, &c, S54. In Prop- 
ositions which express a Design or Result, 

355 . In Dependent Interrogative Propositions, 

356. Subjunctive and Indicative with qvod, 
qvia, 357. With qvum causale, and in the 
Imperf. and Pluperf. with qvum temporale f 
358. Subjunctive and Indicative of Repeated 
Actions relating to Past Time, 359. With ante- 
qvam, priusqvam, dum, donee, qvoad, 360 
(citius, potius, qvam, Obs. 4). With qvamvis, 
licet, 361. In Relative Propositions, 362 b, 
seq. ; to express a Design or Destination (dig- 
nus, idoneus), 363; with cur, qvamobrem, 
363, Obs. 3. With the signification of talis ut, 
364 (persons who, Obs. 1). With the force of 



502 



INDEX. 



a Limitation (qvi qvidem, qvod sciam, qvod 
fieri possit) 364, Obs. 2. After a Universal 
Affirmation or Negation (Subjunctive and 
Indicative Proposition belonging to a Nega- 
tive Idea, 365, Obs. 2) ; in a Causal significa- 
tion, 366 (qvippe qvi, ut qvi, Obs. 2; to 
express a Contrast, Obs. 3) ; to designate a 
Hypothetical Subject, 367 ; to point out the 
Thought of Another, 368. Subjunctive in 
other Subordinate Propositions to designate 
the idea of Another Party, 369. Subjunctive 
in the Second Person, of an indefinite, 
assumed subject, 370. Subjunctive in .Ques- 
tions in a continuous oratio obliqva, 
405 a. 

Subordinate Propositions, 325; of different 
kinds, 326, with Obs. 1 ; their Position, and 
insertion in the Leading Proposition, 476. 

Substantives, their Derivation, 177, seq. Sub- 
stantia mobilia, 181. Substantives put as 
Adjectives, 60, Obs. 2, 3, 4 ; 301, c, Obs. 2. 

subter, 230. 

svemus, 142 (svesco). 

svetus with the Infin., 389, Obs. 3. 

Suffix, 175. 

sui, suus, see Reflective Pronoun. 

sum, see esse. 

sunt, qvi, 365, and Obs. 1. 

super with the Accus. and the Abi., 230. 

superi (superus) 66. 

Superlative, wanting, 67, 68 6. In a significa- 
tion which is not absolute, 310. With unus, 
unus omnium, ib., Obs. 2 ; strengthened in 
other ways, Obs. 3. Differing in Gender from 
the Partitive Genitive, ib., Obs. 1. Denoting 
a Part of a thing {summits mons), 311. 
Drawn into the Relative Proposition, 320, Obs. 

superstes alicujus, 247 6, Obs. 1. 

Supine, 99. How formed, 105. Supines with 
t where the Perfect has Ivi, 105, Obs. 3. Not 
in use from all Verbs, 118, Obs. (128 a). 
Usage of the First, 411 ; of the Second, 412. 

suspectus fecisse, 400 c, Obs. 

Syllables, Division of, 13 (Obs. 2). Measure of, 
as to Quantity, 14, seq. Freedoms which 
the poets allow themselves in this respect, 
502 ; the Comic poets, ib., Obs. 2. 

syllepsis, 478. 

syncaeresis, synizesis, 6, Obs. 1. 

synaloephe, 6. 

syncope, 11 ; in the Perfects in si (xi), 113, 

Obs. 3. 
Synesis in respect of the Gender, 31, Obs. 41 
(terminations), 46 (termination us). Con- 
structio ad Synesim, 207, Obs. 
Systole, 502 a, Obs. 1. 



taHs, tantus — qvalis, qvantus, 324 a. 

tarn — qvam qvi, 310, Obs. 4. Tam in bona 
causa = in tam bona causa, 468, Obs. 

tanqvam, 444 a, Obs. 1. 

tanti est, 294, Obs. 3. 

tantum abest, 440 a, Obs. 1. Tantum 
non, 462 a. 

tempero aliqvid and alicui, 244, Obs. 1. 

tempus est ire, 417, Obs. 2. 

teneri (furti), 293, Obs. 2, note. 

Tenses of the Indicative, 333, seq. (absolute 
and relative); in the Epistolary style, 345. 
Of the Subjunctive, 377, seq (in Hypothetical 
and Potential discourse, 347, 349, Obs. 350). 
Of the Infinitive, 406, seq. Tense of the Sub- 
ordinate Proposition defined by a remark in- 
serted, 383, Obs. 4. 

ter, Pronouns ending in, their signification in 
the Plural, 84, Obs. 

te"rra mariqve, 273 b. Terrarum with Ad- 
verbs of Place, 284, Obs. 10. 

" Than," not expressed with amplius, plus, and 
minus, 305. 

"That," how to be expressed in Latin, 369, 
Obs. 

Thesis, 498. 

ti, its pronunciation, 8. 

timeo aliqvem and alicui, 244, Obs. 1. 
timeo ut, timeo ne, or ut non, 376. 

Tmesis, 203, Obs. 87, Obs. 2. 

" Too great to," 308, Obs. 1. 

tor, Substantives in, used as Adjectives, 60, 
Obs. 2. 

tota urfoe 9 Asia^ Tarracina, 273 c (296 a, 
Obs. 2). 

Towns, names of, in us, 39 b; in o, 41 (pp. 36, 
37); on, ib. (pp. 44, 45). In the Accusative 
answering to the question whither, 232 (Obs.) 
In the Ablative answering to the question 
where, 273 a ; to the question whence, 275, 
(Obs. 1). Genitive (of those of the First and 
Second Declension) answering to the question 
where, 295 a. 

trajicio, its Construction, 231, and note. 

trans. Verbs Compounded with it which 
take a double Accus., 231. 

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs, 94 (Obs.). 
Transitive signification assumed, 223 c/ laid 
aside, 222, Obs. 4. 

trix, Substantives in, used as Adjectives, 60 c, 
Obs. 2. 

Trochee, 499. Trochaic Verses, 506. 

tu. te of a Subject which is only assumed, 
370, Obs. 2. 

turn — turn, 435, Obs. 3; turn ipsum, 487 a, 
Obs. 1. Turn (turn vero, turn deniqve) added 



INDEX. 



503 



after an Ablative Absolute, 423, Obs. 6 ; turn 
turn vero) in the Apodosis, 442 a, Obs. 1. 

U", V, 4, 5 a, Obs. 3. V pronounced for u, 5 a, 
Obs 4. U for i (optumus), ib., Obs. 5. Its 
affinity to /,5 c. U and o, ib. Words in u, 
46, Obs. 1 ; those used only in the Ablative, 
55, 4. Uas a Substantive Termination. 177, 
Obs. V rejected in the Perfect, 113 a; in 
Derivatives, 176 c. 

ui Diphthong, 5 b. 

Ulixei, 38, Obs. 3. Ulixi, 42, 2. 

ullus, 93, 3, Obs 494. UUius, ullo, and occa- 
sionally ulli as Substantives, 90, 3, Obs. 

ultimum hoc, illud, 199, Obs. 2. 

Uin, Genitive termination for arum, 34, Obs. 3; 
for orum, 37, Obs. 4. 

uneia and its Compounds, Suppl. II. B. 2. 

unde = a qvo, a qvibus, 317, Obs. 2. 
Uncle mihi with the Ace us , 239. 

unus, urii, 71 ; uni with pluraiia tantum, 76 
c, Obs. 

unus, unus omnium with Superlatives, 
310, Obs. 2. 

usqye as a Preposition, 172, Obs. 3. 

usus est = opus est, 286. 

Ut, 201, 5 ; origin and connection of its differ- 
ent significations, 372 a, Obs. How employed 
in Object Clauses, 372, 373, 374 (Obs. 2). 
After verba timendi, 376. Used indifferently 
with the Infin. or the Accus. with the Infin., 
372 b, Obss. 2 and 5 ; 373, Obs. 2 : 374, Obs. 2 
(verisimile non est, at) ; 339, Obs. 1. ut 
omitted, 372 b, Obss. 2 and 4 ; 373, Obs. 1. 
Ut in questions (egone ut, tit ut), 353, Obs. 1. 
Ut, ik although,-' 440 a, Obs 4. ut (ne) 
"which I mention, that,*' ib. b. ut ne and 
ut noil, 372 b, 453, with Obs. 3; ut ne {ne) 
signifying '• so that," Obs. 4. Ut non," with- 
out," 440 a, Obs. 3. U qvi, ulpote qvi with 
the Subjunctive, 333, Obs. 2. ut, "since," 
441, Obs. Ut si, 444 b, Obs. 2. ut repeated, 
480, Obs. 2. ut — ita, "certainly — but," 
444 a, Obs. 3 ; ut qvisqve—ita, 495. Ut erat 
iratus, 444 a, Obs. 4. ut, " so for example,-' 
ib. a, Obs. 5. ut put after one or more 
words, 435 b, Obs. 

uterqve with the Plur., 215 a. Uterqve f rater . 
uterqve eorum, 284, Obs. 3. Utriqve hi for 
horum uterqve, utraqve cornua for utrumqve 
coma, 495, Obs. 2 Uterqve and qvisqve, 
ib. 

uti aliqyo amico, 265. With the Accus., 
ib. Obs. 2. Utendus, ib. 

utinam, utinam ne, utinam — non, 351 
b, Obs. 1. 



utrum, 452 (utrum — ne, with a word inter- 
posed, Obs. 1 ; utrum as a Pronoun followed 
by ne — an, Obs. 2). 

vacare rei, 261 a, note. 

vae with the Dat, 236, Obs. 2. 

ve, 433 : after a Negative, 458 c, Obs. 2 ; ap- 
pended to Prepositions, 469, Obs. 2 ; Trans- 
posed, 474/, and Obs. 

ve in Compound words, 204, Obs. 3. 

vel vel — vel, 436 ("even," Obs.). 

vehens from veho and vehor, 111, Obs. 

velle aliqvem aliqvid, 228 b, Obs. 2. Qvid 
tibi vis? 248, Obs. Volenti mihi est, 246, 
Obs. 3. Velirn, veUem, 350 b, Obs. 1. Volo 
(ut) facias, tefacere, hoc fieri, hoc factum, me. 
esse clementem, 372 b, Obs. 2; 339, Obs. 4; 
393 (Obs. 2). Velirn, nolim, 442 b, Obs. 

velum, vexillum, 182, Ob3. 3. 

vendo, veneo (not vendor), 133 (do), 
Obs. 

venit mihi in mentem, 291, Obs. 3. 

Verb, 24, 3, 94. Transitive and Intransitive 
Verbs, 94, Obs. ; 222, 223. Verba pura and 
impura, 101 (122, Obs. ; 174, Obs. 3). Deri- 
vation of the Verbs, 1&0 — 196. The Verb 
defined by the Predicate Noun, 216; Posi- 
tion of the Verb, 465 a, with the Obss. The 
Verb Understood, 478; omitted by Ellipsis, 
479. Verba inchoativa, &c, see Inchoativa, 
&c. 

Verbal Feet, 501. Obs. 2. 

verbis alieujus, 258, Obs. 5. 

vereor facere, 376, Obs. 

vero (verum), 437 d. In Answers, 454. 

versans from verso and versor, 111, Obs. 

Verse, 497, Obs. 2; Simple Compound, 500. 
Feet in. 493, 499 (genuine, spurious, unne- 
cessary feet assumed). Measure of Verse, 
497. 

Versus Ad onius, 504. ArchUochius major 'and 
minor, ib. Alcaicus enneasyllabus, 507. 
Xames of the Compound species of Verse, 503. 
Versus asynarteti, 508, Obs. 

versus, Prep, (an, in - versus), 172, III. 
Obs. 4. 

verum, 437 d. Verum, varum tamen in re- 
suming the discourse, 480." 

veto te facere, veto facere, veto hoc 
fieri, vetor hoc facere, vetor creari, 
390, Obs. 3; 396, Obs. 3. 

vicem alieujus, 237 c, Obs. 3. 

Videre Ut, 372 a. Videre, ne, 372 6, Obs. 1. 
Videro, viderit, 340, Ob3. 4. Vide or (not 
videtur), 400 a, with the Ob3., and b, with 
the Obs. 



504 



INDEX. 



vir, its Compounds, 206 a, Obs. 2. 

Vocative, 32 ; of Greek words in es, 35, Obs. 
3; of words in his, 37, Obs. 3; of Greek 
words in s of the Third Declension, 45, 4. 
How employed (with or without o), 299; in 
the Predicate instead of the Nom., 299, Obs. 
2. Its Position, ib., Obs. 3. 

Vowels, Modification of, 5 c; in Composition, 
205 6. 

Without, how expressed, 416, Obs. 3. 



Words, Position of, very free in Latin, 463 ; the 
most simple, 464 ; modified according to the 
Emphasis, 465, seq. ; 472, 473. In the Poets, 
474. 

Word-feet, 501, Obs. 2. 

X rejected in some words (tela, velum), 182 /, 
Obs. 3. 

Zeugma, 478, Obs. 3. 



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V. JULIUS C^JSAR. 

A volume of about 350 pages ; to include the whole of the Civil War, 
with such extracts from Cicero, Lucan, the Gallic War, and Caesar's 
own correspondence, as to make it a full history of his public life and 
times, given, wherever it is possible, in his own words. To be illustrated 
by historical introduction, notes, and maps. 

Boston, February, 1869. 



NOTICES 



ALLEN'S MANUAL LATIN GRAMMAR. 



[From President Hill, of Harvard University.] 

Cambridge, Aug. 7, 1868. 

Rev. Joseph H. Allen. 

Dear Sir, — Of the details of your "Latin Grammar " I am not a 
competent judge ; but the general plan and general execution I feel 
free to commend very warmly. The book seems to me to contain all 
that is necessary for those who do not wish to make a special study 
of philology ; and to contain it in so brief a form as to give rea- 
sonable hope that a boy may become familiar with it without either 
overstraining his memory, or becoming disgusted with the quantity 
imposed on him. It is a great error to expand a text-book beyond the 
dimensions necessary for a clear statement of the subject. 
Very respectfully yours, 

THOMAS HILL. 

[from Prof. Bowen, of Harvard University.] 

Harvard College, Aug. 26, 1868. 
Dear Sir, - 1 - Though it is not for me to speak with authority on 
such a subject, I believe that the publication of your " Manual Latin 
Grammar " will be of great service to the cause of classical studies in 
this country. By careful selection, arrangement, and condensation, 
in little more than one hundred pages of distinct and open type, you 
have endeavored to present all the grammatical forms and principles 
which the pupil, whether schoolboy or undergraduate, needs to com- 
mit to memory, and nothing more than he so needs, in order to read, 
understand, and appreciate any Latin classic ; and I think you have 
succeeded. At any rate, whatever else of grammatical science the 
pupil ought to possess may be most profitably learned in the class- 
room, from the lips of his instructor, who will want for occasional refer- 
ence some more comprehensive work. A big grammar is necessarily 
a big evil, and ought to be kept out of the hands of the learner, for 
it tends only to dishearten him and give him a disgust for his task. It 
is usually a wilderness of words, a heterogeneous mass of anomalies^ 
technicalities, and theoretical refinements, often of questionable cor- 



rectness, and generally ill-arranged, ill-expressed, and ill-printed. Your 
book evidently has great merits ; it seems to me a master-piece of brev- 
ity, method, and clearness. For the use of schools and colleges in 
this country, I hope it will supersede every larger work, and only be 
superseded, should one be published hereafter equally concise, and still 
more lucid, methodical, and trustworthy. It will then probably have 
had a long term of service. Very truly yours, 

FBANCIS BOWEN 

[From S. H. Taylor, Andover.] 

Andover, Sept. 1, 1868 
Rev. Mr. Allen. 

My Dear Sir, — I am greatly obliged to you for the copy of your 
Latin Grammar which you had the kindness to send me. I am much 
pleased with the plan and execution of the work. It contains all the 
general principles of the language, clearly and concisely stated, and is 
sufficiently full to meet the ordinary wants of the pupil in the early 
part of his course. I am glad to see a Latin Grammar in so compact, 
and yet so complete, a form. It is very happily adapted to smooth the 
path of the pupil in the study of the Latin language. The type, and 
the whole mechanical execution, are a great luxury to the eye. I con- 
gratulate you and your brother on your success in the work, and am 
sure that you have done a valuable service to the cause of classical 
learning. With great respect, very truly yours, 

S. H. TAYLOR. 

[From Prof. E. W. Gurney, of Harvard College.] 

Touching the main point that was spoken of, — the sufficient fulness 
of the treatment of the noun and adjective, — you seem to me to have 
shown excellent judgment. Truly yours, 

Prof. E. W. GURNEY, 
Cambridge, Aug. 8. Harvard College. 

[From Prof. Henry W. Haynes, of the University of Vermont.] 

University of Vermont, 
Burlington, Sept. 9, 1868. 
I have examined your Manual Latin Grammar quite carefully, and 
am exceedingly pleased with both the plan and the execution of it. It 
supplies the great desideratum of a brief elementary grammar, at once 
simple and concise, and, at the same time, accurately embodying the 
latest results of scholarship. The clear and terse statement of prin- 
ciples seems to meet the practical requirements of a text-book. 



[From President of Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.] 

Ithaca, N.Y., Sept. 6, 1868. 
Rev. J. H. Allen. 

Dear Sir, — Accept my sincere thanks for your "Latin Gram- 
mar." It gives some hope for classical scholarship. I have been long 
convinced that the most dangerous foes of classical studies are not the 
men who decry them, — the Philistines, — but the men who smother 
them, — the Pedants. If classical scholarship shall ever be utterly 
neglected among us, it will be because those appointed to promote it, 
have substituted for the great works of the great minds of antiquity, 
endless gerund-grinding, and second-hand scraps of doubtful philoso- 
phy, and metaphysics of the subjunctive mood. 

Modern grammarians have become generally so long and so dreary, 
that there is no time for ancient authors. 

I renew my thanks to you, and to your brother, for making the 
study of Cicero and Tacitus and Erasmus again possible, by giving 
us a sufficient grammar, short and to the point. 

I remain, dear sir, very truly yours, 

ANDREW D. WHITE. 



[From Prof. J. E. Clark, Antioch College, Ohio.] 

It seems to me a real little jewel, clear-cut and sparkling. The 
principles that guided you are excellent, and you appear to have car- 
ried them out with rare judgment and fidelity. It is by no means a 
minor merit that the examples are so copious, carefully selected and 
idiomatically translated, — though I believe the necessity of translat- 
ing examples for beginners has come to be pretty generally recognized. 
I am glad that you enunciate so distinctly in your preface, as an article 
of faith, that the language and the literature are the real objects of 
study, not grammar, except as a subsidiary, and I remember the pas- 
sage in which you express this conviction struck me as very forcible. 
After a few months' instruction in this spirit in your manual, and due 
" praxis in some chosen short-book lessoned thoroughly to him," such 
as the " Exercises " you promise, I see no reason why any intelligent 
youth, fond of study, may not at once proceed with delight to the 
literature, and study at the same time the Roman tongue and the ideas 
of the Roman world, and thus get what Milton — to borrow again 
from him — called the " substance of good things," of which he very 
justly regarded language as but the form. 

Ever truly yours, JOHN E. CLARK. 



[From Professor Magill, of Swarthmore College, Penn.J 

I have examined, with great care and eminent satisfaction, your 
new " Manual Latin Grammar ; " and do not hesitate to pronounce it, 
in the language of the preface, "full and accurate enough to be a 
practical guide to the learner, but avoiding the prodigious multiplica- 
tion of details which have so overgrown that study in our ordinary 
school text-books/' The editors seem to have been very successful in 
selecting and presenting, in a concise and intelligible form, the essen- 
tial principles of the language. This unpretending, yet most excel- 
lent little book, well mastered, will make far more accurate and 
thorough Latin scholars than the painful and discouraging study of 
the more voluminous grammars in common use. Among so much 
that is excellent it is difficult to particularize ; but I may mention the 
condensed view of the conjugations of the verbs ; the truly philosoph- 
ical treatment of the subjunctive, and the article on the quantity of 
penultimate syllables. 

No one can speak fully of the value of such a book until it has 
been subjected to the test of the class-room ; but it is very clear that 
this methodical and perspicuous statement of the principles of Latin 
grammar is the ripe fruit of long and successful experience there. It 
gave me great satisfaction to find several subjects abridged and pre- 
sented in almost the identical form which I have found it necessary to 
adopt for years in the practical work of the class-room. 



[From the Nation.] 

ALLEN'S LATIN GRAMMAR MANUAL. 

" Why does not some scholar who is qualified write a good Latin Gram- 
mar ? " is a question that has been asked so often by many teachers of 
Latin and most faithful students of that language, that it has come to have 
a sound of despair. The Latin grammars in common use are bad text- 
books, because they all contain several important errors. They are mis- 
taken in greater or less degree with regard to certain Latin constructions, 
mostly — though not wholly — relating to the syntax of the verb. They 
do not state the rules of syntax in a simple and intelligible manner, but, 
on the contrary, in language so involved and obscure, that one of our first 
classical scholars declares himself unable to understand the meaning of 
certain rules found in most of them. They are loaded down with a mass 
of unnecessary verbiage relating usually to matters which the beginner 
does not want to know ; and, finally, they fail to discriminate properly 
between what is important and what is not, so that a scholar has given 
him a rule which he will have to apply in reading every page of his Virgil 
or Cicero, and one of whose use he may find but a single example in all 



8 

his reading, as both alike important, and both alike to be learned verbatim 
in the metaphysical — or shall we call it nonsensical? — language which 
grammarians so much affect. 

The ordinary scholar cannot be persuaded to make himself master of 
these grammars, or if under the eye of some severe drill-master he does 
so, he has good reason to regret his wasted pains afterward. The system 
of what we call, with a real, if unintentional, sarcasm, " teaching Latin," 
as practised in most of our classical schools, would almost seem to have 
been devised for the purpose of inspiring in the minds of beginners a 
sincere and reasonable hatred of the study of Latin. If any boy, after 
blundering through the mazes and blind paths of "Andrews and Stod- 
dard," can still profess with truth to have any regard for the study, he 
must be either preternaturally good-natured, or possessed of a wretchedly 
perverted taste. 

At a time when classical studies have been assailed rigorously as, at 
best, involving an unprofitable use of time, the text-books in mathematics 
and the physical sciences, and even in the modern languages, have 
become excellent in plan and arrangement, while the Latin and Greek 
grammars have been neither well-arranged nor correct, and far, indeed, 
from being interesting; and classical studies have suffered seriously from 
the bad text-books from which they have had to be pursued. 

The book before us seems to us the first successful attempt to remedy 
the difiiculties we have indicated. The Messrs. Allen have begun by 
rejecting courageously a great deal of information contained in the old 
grammars which is unnecessary for beginners, including some things 
which the more advanced Latin scholars must know ; but the book, as 
they take pains to say in their preface, is intended for learners, not for 
teachers, and the latter must look elsewhere for information upon the 
nicer points of the language. By this process of omission the authors 
have accomplished, what will seem to those familiar with the old grammars, 
the remarkable feat of stating the elementary principles of Latin Gram- 
mar, including Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody, in one hundred and 
twenty pages of not very fine print, and yet have had room to give a 
remarkably full number of quotations in illustration of those principles. 

But to reduce Latin Grammar to a small compass, though a meritorious, 
would not have been a great, undertaking ; our authors have gone fur- 
ther, and have attempted conscientiously to state the rules of Syntax in 
simple, comprehensible terms, therein departing widely from the tradi- 
tional grammar-language. Grammar is, after all, a somewhat abstruse 
science, and the attempt to simplify its language is, therefore, difficult ; 
but we think that all must admit that the Messrs. Allen have been very 
fortunate, and certainly far more successful than any of their prede- 
cessors. 

They deserve the thanks, not only of beginners, but of all Latin scholars, 



THE 



English of Shakespeare ; 



ILLUSTRATED IN 



$■ Iplupal Craratentorji 



JULIUS CAESAR. 



BY 



GEORGE L. CRAIK, 

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN QUEEN'S COLLEGE, 
BELFAST. 



fEtoitrij, from tfje SITjirTj BebtsetJ EcnUon fEfcition, 

BY 

W. J. ROLFE, 

MASTER OF THE HIGH SCHOOL, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. 



BOSTON: 
PUBLISHED BY GINN BROTHERS & CO., 

13 BEACON STREET 
187O. 



TESTIMONIALS. 



From the North American Review, July, 1867. 

The author of this book is known to most of us by his 
" History of English Literature and of the English Lan- 
guage," which was republished in this country in 1864; and 
his "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties" has been a 
favorite food for a generation of young Americans. His 
" Spenser and his Poetry " has also been long a hand-book 
with the students of that sage and serious poet, and the appre- 
ciation of it in America had led him to prepare a new edition 
just before he died. He had been Professor of History and of 
English Literature in Queen's College, Belfast, since 1849. 
He was born in 1799, in Fifeshire, the son of a schoolmaster, 
and he worked in London from 1824 to 1849. ^ e wrote many 
books on a great variety of subjects, and many articles for the 
Penny Cyclopaedia and the British Quarterlies. He was a 
hearty, hard-working, abounding man, — of good, sound sense, 
ardent love of English literature, and wide acquaintance with 
it, and of scholarship enough to gather interesting facts about 
language, without running wild after etymology and the like. 
He was skilful in discerning and supplying the popular needs. 
He has shown his skill in the title of this book, — " The Eng- 
lish of Shakespeare."- What a wealth of promise has that on 
the back of a volume of four hundred pages ! 

This book contains, as prolegomena, a brief account of 
Shakespeare's personal history; of his works; the sources for 
the text of his plays ; his editors and commentators ; the mod- 
ern Shakespearian texts ; the mechanism of English verse, and 
the prosody of the plays of Shakespeare ; and the history 01 



Testimonials. i i 

the play of "Julius Caesar." Then follow a carefully studied 
text of that play; a philological commentary on it; and last, 
not least, a good verbal index, a look at which shows us thai 
the notes contain discussions of some six hundred words. 

The first five prolegomena are brief. Since the spelling and 
pronunciation of Shakespeare's name are discussed, the decisive 
reasons for spelling Shakespeare rather than Shakspere should 
have been given ; we mean the fact that Shakespeare himself 
used it in all the books which he published, — the "Venus 
and Adonis," and "The Rape of Lucrece," — and that it is 
used in the Folio of the Plays. It is time that the printers 
should learn that Shakspeare is a blunder, or, at least, should 
let us say Shakespeare without repeated corrections of the 
proof. 

The discussion of the prosody of Shakespeare's plays is quite 
full ; the laws of his versification are given with more accu- 
racy than in any other easily accessible book ; and the facts 
here brought together are a valuable contribution to our knowl- 
edge of the language of Shakespeare, and the changes which 
his versification underwent at different times of his life. 

The evidence in the other plays that the character of Julius 
Caesar made a deep impression on Shakespeare, and that the 
play was long growing in his mind, is also interesting in itself; 
and the discussion of it here may be important as a model for 
similar investigations of the mind and inner life of Shake- 
speare. For surely we have facts before us in these plays for 
making out a life of Shakespeare with great certainty and 
minuteness, if we only had the eyes to see, and if the right 
method of induction were made familiar to us. It is doubtful 
whether any man has left us a more complete record than 
Shakespeare has of the subjects which occupied his mind, and 
of how he stood related in feeling and sympathy to all matters 
of human interest. But a legitimate induction is not always 
easy. 

The text of the play of "Julius Caesar" is good. Professor 
Craik has for the first time numbered the speeches for con- 
venience of reference. This is good. We are going to study 
Shakespeare, and we should have texts in which the lines of 
the speeches more than ten lines long are also numbered. 



1 2 Testimonials. 

The first folio, it is well known, gives a fairly correct text, the 
best in the volume ; and Professor Craik has been careful to 
preserve it for the most part. . . . 

The philological commentary is also admirable. It is the full- 
est discussion yet given to the language of any of Shakespeare's 
plays. Every word or phrase, whose meaning could give rise 
to a reasonable doubt, even to a student unversed in the older 
literature, is examined and explained at length; the history 
and etymology are given as far back as the Anglo-Saxon or 
Latin original, and illustrative examples quoted from other 
parts of Shakespeare, other authors, or the Bible. Words and 
phrases having analogous forms or history are also freely 
brought in. So that quite a little philological tractate springs 
out of a single word. The first note, for example, is on " you 
ought not walk" and is three full pages in length. The absence 
of to gives rise to a history of the facts connected with the use 
of that preposition with the infinitive in Anglo-Saxon and 
down to our own times. This is made lively by apt quotations. 
Then the history of ought is given, and its changes of mean- 
ing from have or ow?i, first to owe, then to ought, are explained 
and illustrated. The second note has two pages and a half on 
the word laboring (iifion a laboring day). There is a note of 
ten pages on its, three of which are added by the American 
editor; another of more than two pages on merely, and there 
are other considerable essays on shrew, shrewd ; on statue ; on 
shall and will ; on had as lie/; and on the prefix be-. But most 
of the notes are shorter; they give a brief explanation, men- 
tion some interesting philological fact or illustration, and do 
not aim at any exhaustive treatment even of the word or phrase 
explained. . . . 

The work of the American editor is chiefly upon these notes. 
It is admirably done throughout. The additional illustrations 
are numerous; they are always pertinent and interesting, and 
they show scholarship of the right sort. The omissions are 
well judged. Many errors and careless remarks are deleted. 
Where notes are rewritten, they are clearer and briefer. . . . 

Mr. Rolfe has found this book useful in teaching a class in 
school, and he hopes that other schools will use it, as well as 
students of Shakespeare out of school. We hope so too. 



Testimonials. 13 

From Prof, F. J. Child, of Harvard College, 

Craik's " English of Shakespeare" is an excellent work and 
has received many improvements from Mr. Rolfe. There is 
no book of its dimensions that I know of, out of which so 
much may be learned about the English language. 



A month later, Professor Child writes : — 

To-day I have made up my mind to begin my English class 
with your book, instead of reserving it for the close of the 
year. ... It is one of the only two or three books which are 
both fit to be used, and within the means of students. 



From E. H. Magill, A.M. 

I have examined with much care, and great satisfaction, 
Craik's " English of Shakespeare," edited by the accomplished 
master of the Cambridge High School. 

There is no sufficient reason why the study of the modern 
languages, and especially of our own mother tongue, should 
not claim a larger share than has hitherto been accorded to it 
in a course of liberal studies. The grand results of the investi- 
gations of modern philologists are pressing this claim more 
and more earnestly every j'ear, and I know of no work better 
calculated to arouse the interest of our youth in the critical 
study of their own language, than this excellent little volume 
of Prof. Craik's, with its admirable Philological Commentary 
upon the very best of Shakespeare's plays for the purposes of 
the class-room. For this book, appearing as it does at so 
auspicious a period, just as the want for works of this char- 
acter is beginning to make itself so widely felt, I predict- a 
very great success. 



From S. H. Taylor, LL.D., Principal of Phillips Academy, 
Andover, Mass. 

I have examined Craik's "English of Shakespeare" as 
edited by Mr. W. J. Rolfe, and am highly pleased with it 



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